Книга - IBM. Падение и возрождение великой компании

a
A


Warning: mb_convert_encoding(): Unable to detect character encoding in /var/www/u2150601/data/www/ae-books.online/wp-content/themes/twentyfifteen/content.php on line 442
IBM.



Top Business Awards
IBM , 70 . IBM , . IBM , -, , .

, , 40 IBM, , - , IBM $.



PDF A4 .







IBM.


, , , IBM



James W. Cortada

IBM: The Rise and Fall and Reinvention of a Global Icon

2019 Massachusetts Institute of Technology



All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. The rights to the Russian-language edition obtained through Alexander Korzhenevski Agency (Moscow).



., 2021

, 2021








, IBM.

( )

, IBM. IBM 1900. , 1990-. IBM 1970- 1960-. , 1890, , , IBM. , .

IBM . , , , . , , , , . , , -, IBM , . , , IBM (, -, ), , , , , .

? , , . : ; , , , , , , , , , , , 2016; , , . , , IBM. , : IBM Netflix, IBM Apple? IBM .



, IBM. IBM , ; , . IBM , .[1 - , IBM . , , IBM. , Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft. - IBMand the Holocaust , IBM - - . . .]

, , , , IBM. , , , . . , , , , , IBM , . , . .

IBM , , . , , , . , , IBM ? ? , , : , . IBM , 30 50 ? , 75% , - . , , ( ), , , .

, . IBM . , , , . , IBM, , , , . IBM . ? IBM ? , ? .

IBM , . , , 1980- , -. , IBM? , 178? , , 1993? , 2017, , IBM , ? , , , , , , , .

IBM , : , International Business Machines . , IBM . , , , , - . , , . : , -, -. , , IBM , , , : [2 - Alex Planes, Should the Dow Jones Get Rid of International Business Machines Corp?, The Motley Fool, July 16, 2014, http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2014/07/16/should-the-dow-jones-get-rid-of-international-busi.aspx.]. ?

, , , , . , , , IBM, , ; , . , IBM , , , , , 1960- , . , [3 - 1964 System/360 , , , , , , .] . IBM , . , IBM 1981 ( Macintosh Apple) , . , , , , , , , , , . , IBM , . , IBM 20 100, , , , - . , , . .

, IBM, , , , , , , ( ). , , , , , . IBM . IBM , , . , - ? , , , , , , , ?

IBM , , , , . IBM. : , IBM, . , 蠫, -, , IBM . , , , , , . ; .

, - IBM , , 1990- . , . , IBM . , -, IBM ( ); , . Nabisco , , , IBM, , (, Nabisco). , . . , , , IBM, - -, ( ) , Apple. IBM , , ; .



IBM , . , IBM: , , , 130- ? , 1880-, 1970- , , , . 1970- : , , . , , , , , . ? 1960-; 1990-, 2012. , : , , , , , , . - ? .







IBM . , , , , . IBM . IBM , , , . , , , , , ꠫ . . IBM ; , . , . , , . , IBM - . , , , . IBM . . , ( ), , , , .  IBM , , , , . .

, IBM, , , , . IBM , , , . , IBM, , . , IBM , . 130 IBM . () , . IBM , , IBM , . IBM , .

, . , . , , IBM; , , . IBM, , , -, IBM. , , . , IBM.

IBM - , - 蠫.., , , , , . , , 100- . .

IBM . , , [4 - Harold Evans, Do IMake Myself Clear? (New York: Little, Brown, 2017), 212.]. , , IBM , . 38- , , IBM, , , .







IBM , . .

, , , . , IBM , , , , , . , , , . , .

-, , IBM, , . . , . . IBM, , . .

-, , . IBM . , , , , . IBM .

-, , , . , , , , , . .

- ( , , ), IBM, , . , , . , , , , ꠫, . .

- , IBM , , , , . , , , .

, IBM, , . , 130.







, , . . . , . , , - , , . , , IBM . , . ; . , , IBM , II, , III. , , , , I IBM, , . , , , , . , , .

, , , , , . . -, , , , , , IBM; . , , : , , , . , , , , .







IBM 1974 , IBM . Google Apple Computer . IBM; , . , . . , - , , .

IBM, . , , . IBM 1954 . , IBM, 1981, , 1995 , , . 1993 , IBM, , , , . , , IBM.  2011 IBM, . IBM. , , , , , . IBM: Princeton University Press Oxford University Press. , .

IBM , , IBM, , : . , , , . - , IBM ( ), , , , . IBM . , , , .

, , . - , ICL, , . , , , , . 1980- , , . . , , IBM, , . .

IBM , . , ; , IBM . . , IBM THINK, , IBM, . , -, , IBM. , , . , IBM , , , 1950- 1960- . .

, IBM, , , . , , . , , - , IBM , . , , , IBM, , , , -, . , , , . . , . IBM, , IBM , , .

, , . , , , IBM . , , . . MITPress, -, , . MIT.

, , IBM. IBM , , , , , , . , -, , . , IBM .








I

: IBM 1880- 1945-





1

: 1880- 1914-



- , .

[5 - Robert J. Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 570571.]

. - , , , . , , C-T-R. IBM. , . IBM , . -, . - , -; . , ( , ), - . - (18741956).

, , , International Business Machines Corporation. , , , IBM , . IBM 1940- . , IBM, The International Business Machines Corporation, . the ( ) ; , 1920- , .

, IBM, , , , - IBM . 1870- 1940- : , IBM. , , IBM.

IBM : 1880- 1914 ( ); , . -, 1914- 1956-, , , IBM - ; , , 1980- . IBM , , , IBM , . , , IBM, , , , IBM.

IBM, , , IBM , . , . , IBM , , , , , , , , IBM. , , . [6 - Mairi Maclean, Charles Harvey, and Stewart R. Clegg, Organization Theory in Business and Management History: Present Status and Future Prospects, Business History Review 91, no. 3(Autumn 2017): 457481.].

, , , [7 - Geoffrey D. Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982); Lars Heide, Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 18801945(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009). Lars Heide, Shaping aTechnology: American Punched Card Systems 18801914, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 19, no. 4(OctoberDecember 1997): 2841. . Friedrich W. Kistermann, Hollerith Punched Card System Development (19051913), IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 27, no. 1(JanuaryMarch 2005): 5666. 1929.]. , - C-T-R 1920-. , , , ; 1980- , . , , , , , -[8 - Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 337339; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition (New York: Times Books, 1982); Emerson W. Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1995); Rowena Olegario, IBMand the Two Thomas J. Watsons, Creating Modern Capitalism: How Entrepreneurs, Companies, and Countries Triumphed in Three Industrial Revolutions, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 349395; Kevin Maney, The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2003.], . . , , , , IBM. . IBM, , , , , , [9 - , . : Charles R. Flint, Memories of an Active Life: Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1923); Frederick Lincoln Fuller, My Half Century as an Inventor ( , 1938); Walter D. Jones, Watson and Me: Life at IBM, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 24, no. 1(JanuaryMarch 2002): 418.].

. , , , , . . . , , , IBM, , . : , -. , . , , 1870- 1930- - , ; , , -, IBM 40[10 - Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 377417.]. IBM. , , , . . ; , , . , . . , 1870- 1940- , , [11 - . (19182007), , , , .][12 - Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, 118.]. , IBM.







1870- 1930-; , . 13000 1880, 42000 1900- 86000 1920-. 1930- .  1930 93000; 1941 41000 [13 - U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), part 2, 598.]. [14 - . .: Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth.].

. , , . , ; , , . , . , , , , . , 3?5 , . , , , , . , ; , .

. , , , , , ,[15 - (19462010) , , , .] , [16 - James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 7.]. , , . , , . , . . , , , , , [17 - Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 18701920(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 12.]. , , , , - , , - [18 - , , William G. Roy, Socializing Capital: The Rise of the Large Industrial Corporation in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 18, 26.]. , (18501934), , ; , IBM.

, , , . . . , -. , . - , - . . , . , , , , . . , : , , , , . C-T-R, , .






.1.1

, C-T-R, International Business Machines Corporation.

IBM



, , , , . , -. - , . , . , . , , , . , , , . ; C-T-R [19 - . .: Flint, Memories of an Active Life.].

, - , ( , ), , , . , ( - ). 1895, , , ; .

. , (- ), , . , . , , , , , , [20 - ; , .]. . , . , , IBM , ( , , , ), . , 1892 United States Rubber Company, . American Chicle, . , 500 , 9 . , , , , 14 . ? , , .

, , 1870 . , IBM , , , IBM : . , ( , Remington Rand, Burroughs Corporation National Cash Register Company (NCR)), , C-T-R. , C-T-R, Burroughs NCR , .

, , IBM, Kodak, Ford General Motors, . -, , . , 1870- 1880-, -, , , . -, . , , , , , , , . , (18361918) 1870-, NCR . . , , IBM, -, . , : , , ; , [21 - Walter A. Friedman, Birth of aSalesman: The Transformation of Selling in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 107, 147150.].

-, , , . : . , , . , . , , . ; . , . , . 1870- 1920- , IBM. ; .



International Business Machines . , IBM


- . , , , , , . , Corning Glass, Kodak International Time Recording Company. , [22 - Christophe Lcuyer, Making Silicon Valley: Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 19301970(Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 2007).]. , IBM. IBM -: - -, , ( - , 1) [23 - - 1990- IBM - , ( -). , - IBM. . Mary McAleer Vizard, I.B.M. Planning aScaled-Down New Headquarters, New York Times, August 20, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/20/realestate/ibm-planning-a-scaled-down-new-headquarters.html?pagewanted=all.]. , IBM, ; .




Bundy Manufacturing Company


IBM , , , C-T-R; . , , . 1949 60 . [24 - , , 1980-!]. Bundy Manufacturing , , IBM 1920- 1930-, 1930- 1960-. Ѡ1930- 1950- - , -, , 1950- 1960-, - [25 - , , Heide, Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion. - . .: Thomas J. Watson Jr. and Peter Petre, Father, Son & Co.: My Life at IBMand Beyond (New York: Bantam, 1990). Richard S. Tedlow, The Watson Dynasty: The Fiery Reign and Troubled Legacy of IBMs Founding Father and Son (New York: HarperBusiness, 2003).].

(18451907) , -, , . . , 1888. , . (18561916), . . ( 1889-) Bundy Manufacturing Company , -. , . 100, . 9000 ( )[26 - Edward Aswad and Suzanne M. Meredith, IBMin Endicott (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2005), 12.].  1900 , , International Time Recording Company (ITR). Bundy Manufacturing . Bundy C-T-R. , , ITR. C-T-R 1910- 1920-, .

IBM 1914 1971, . , -, , , , IBM -. C-T-R , , , C-T-R .  1903 . Bundy Manufacturing ITR- , - . , 1900 , . . . , Bundy Time Recording Company, : , , ITR.

- . , , ITR, . , , . , Bundy Manufacturing ITR Bundy Time Recording Company 1903 1907. , Bundy Time Recording, . 1889 , , . . 19 1907, ITR . . ITR 1911 - C-T-R.  1910 . W. H. Bundy Time Card Printing Company .




International time recording company(ITR)


ITR , , C-T-R( , ). C-T-R , , , , . , 1934 IBM. C-T-R IBM , . International Time Recording Company (ITR), . . ITR , 2000 ; 3000 ( IBM)[27 - Savage & Polites Antique Clocks Identification and Price Guide, www.antiqueclockspriceguide.com. 1916- 1949-.]. , - .  1910 1 . ʠ1916 , .




Computing scale company ofAmerica


ITR , Computing Scale Company. . , , , , . . , . , , , , IBM. . , .

Computing Scale Company, . , , . . , Computing Scale Company ITR : , . . Computing Scale Company, , , . Computing Scale Company (), Moneyweight Scale Company , W. F. Simpson Company Stimpson Computing Scale Company, , . . , , , Tabulating Machine Company, .




Tabulating Machine Company


, 1860 ( ) , -, . 1879 . , (. .1.2), , IBM . ; 1982. IBM [28 - Sobel, IBM; Austrian, Herman Hollerith; Martin Campbell-Kelly, William Aspray, Nathan Ensmenger, and Jeffrey R. Yost, AHistory of the Information Machine, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2014), 340.]. , , , , , , , , . , 廠 , , . , 1920- 80, IBM. . : , [29 - ʠ1880- , , . James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 18651956(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 2578.]. . , .

, , . , . , , : 40 45 , 40 45[30 - Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York: Random House, Vintage, 1973), 172.]. , , , [31 - Beniger, The Control Revolution, 416.].

, , 1880. , 50 . , , . ; 8, . , , , 1890 , , . ; , 1890 63 26 1880. 1880, , . (18381913), , , - [32 - , , 76,2 , 21 1890- . , , Cortada, Before the Computer, 4448.]. , , .






.1.2

. , , 1890- 1900-. .

IBM



, , - , . , , , , , ? , , - . , [33 - Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 57.]. . , . , , , - ( ). , , , , , , , , . , . , , , , .

, , , , , , , . , , , , , . , . , , , , . 1884 , , - -. , 1890 , . , 1889, , 1890.

1890 . , 18 . , . . , . , , , , . , , [34 - James W. Cortada, All the Facts: AHistory of Information in the United States since 1870(New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 148152.].

.  1882 (MIT) , . 1890-; , . , -, . , , , .  1890- , . 1890 (1890), (1891) . , , . , .

. , , , . , , . . , ; , , , , , . 1920- IBM 4 . Kodak, , , Gilette, . , , . , . , , C-T-R/IBM, , , , . , IBM , .






.1.3

, , .

IBM



, 1911 IBM, , . , - . , . -, C-T-R, 1914 . 1914, . 1929 , , 1910- 1920- IBM . , , , , . , , . .

1890- , . , (18711929), 1920-; , IBM 1950-[35 - Remington Rand Sperry Univac.]. ; , 1889 1907- . , 1910, , , . 30 , , , , , . , , ( ), [36 - IBM 1950- 1970- - , , , ; - 1956 Watson and Petre, Father, Son & Co.].






.1.4

- , C-T-R, IBM.

IBM



, , , . , , . , . , , , , , , , . , 1896 . C-T-R, , . . . .

, C-T-R . , . , , . , , . 1920- C-T-R, . , . NCR , . , . . Ѡ , , , . . , , , [37 - Austrian, Herman Hollerith.].




IBM: C-T-R


1901 1911 . ITR , 1910 1 . 1910 . , , ITR, , . , , , , , . , . , , .

, , , , , , . Ӡ , , , , , Tabulating Machine Company . 2,3 , 5138 . 1,2 2700. 100 C-T-R. , . , , ITR, ITR , [38 - Sobel, IBM, 1213.]. , , . , , Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company; , , Flint & Company. . , . , ѻ, C-T-R . ITR . C-T-R , - ( ), / , .  C-T-R 1200; ITR.

, ; - . - 20000 1924, C-T-R IBM. , . 1914 , , . , C-T-R, - , [39 - Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 325.]. ITR , , . .

C-T-R (-, ) , , . . C-T-R 17,5 , 1 , 16,5 . 10,5 , 6 , . , 4 , . 35 200 . , , . , Guaranty Trust Company, , 7 , 30, , , 1913[40 - , , , C-T-R. .: Boxes 27, Flint Papers, - .]. () 6, . .

, , , , , . , , . IBM , , - , . , , . , , ( ) , .




: 19111914


, C-T-R . . , - , - . . , , . , , , . , , - . - , . .

C-T-R , ; . C-T-R . C-T-R, .  1912 ITR 541 ; 635 . Tabulating Machine; ITR.  1913 C-T-R [41 - 313719. .: Bulletin No. 61, October 22, 1913, ⠫Personal Miscellany Clippings, Box 7, Flint Papers, - .]. , , , , . 1913 C-T-R. , C-T-R; , , . [42 - Charles R. Flint Papers, - . : http://archives.nypl.org/mss/1032.].

, , . , , C-T-R, , , , , , C-T-R, , . . -, . , .




2

. - IBM: 19141924



.

. -, 1920-

1914 1924 C-T-R IBM. , , , . IBM, , , .  1914 , IBM. . C-T-R . IBM.

IBM , . IBM ( , ) . ; . . , , . IBM , - , . , . , , , . , . , C-T-R IBM, 1950-.

, [43 - James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies (New York: HarperBusiness, 1994).]. , . , , , , [44 - Kenneth Lipartito, Business Culture, in The Oxford Handbook of Business History, ed. Geoffrey Jones and Jonathan Zeitlin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 603628.]. , IBM, .  1914 C-T-R .

, C-T-R, , . -. ; , . C-T-R , , . , . C-T-R, , , C-T-R. Ƞ, , ; , . IBM , - C-T-R .

, . - . , C-T-R, , ( ), . , ; , , . , NCR. . , IBM. , IBM, , 1920- 1930- .




C-T-R


, IBM, , IBM . - .

, , C-T-R , . . (18541924) C-T-R, . C-T-R . , -, - International Time. , 57[45 - Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition (New York: Times Books, 1982), 49.].  1911 . 1907 1918 , C-T-R.  1910 , .

, . - .  1912 . (18631944), ITR, . , , . , , . ; . , , .

, , ITR , , [46 - IBM , CEO, , , , -, - , . , , , , , . , , 1980-, 2010-. , , , , .]. , 1913 , . , , 1914 , .  1915- Remington Typewriter Company 1922, .




. -, IBM,


. - IBM. IBM, - , ( , ) . - 1874 , -, , . - . , ; . , , . , , ? . National Cash Register Company (NCR) 1895. . NCR, .

, NCR, IBM, ⠫, . NCR . (18441922), , . , , . . , , . , , . , , , . NCR [47 - James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 18651956(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 6478.].

1895, 21. , , . -, .  1899 , -, , NCR . Hallwood Company, NCR .






.2.1

. NCR; .

IBM



 1903 , , . , NCR. , , . NCR . , , .  1907 NCR , . , - . 36, 1910 .

American Cash Register Company, , NCR . NCR. . , 13 1913 . (18731932), NCR; , . 5000 , . . (18831966), .

-. , 90 . . , , NCR, . . . , NCR . , , .  1915 , . . , - , : 蠫 [48 - Sobel, IBM, 45.]. ? , , . 1914, , - , . 40. NCR, , . , , NCR.

? , , , . Ӡ , , . , , , . . , . : , , - . , . IBM , , , [49 - , , -, 1950-.]. ʠ1960- . , , , , , [50 - , IBM , - , . , . - , , . , . - , ( , , ).]. IBM ; 1980-.

. (. 1928), , - 1950-, , , , ; . , ; . , . , . , IBM . , - , , , . IBM , IBM , .

 NCR , .  NCR , , ( ) . IBM, . , : , , . .

Ӡ . , , . , , , . , . , , IBM , - -. , , , , , [51 - , 10 1982. : , , , , . - . , , - .].

, , . , - , IBM , , - . , - -? , . , , , , , - , , . 1990-. , , . , , , , . , - . .

IBM, , , NCR 1914. . , , , IBM , C-T-R. , , , , , , .

C-T-R, . , . C, T R - . , , , . , , , ; , . , , , , . Ѡ ; , . Eastman Kodak, - , -. , , , . NCR, , . , [52 - Kevin Maney, The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2003), 1213.].

, , C-T-R. , , ITR. , . . , . , 1914 , . , , , , ; , , . . C-T-R ( ), , IBM .

, . , . . , . , , , . .

C-T-R ; , . , .  NCR , , . , ITR , . , .  C-T-R . C-T-R , , - , . , C-T-R , ( ), , . , . , C-T-R ITR Tabulating Machines , , . , (18711927) Powers Accounting Machines. ; 1927 Remington Rand[53 - Remington Rand Sperry Rand, Univac 1950-, - . ʠIBM , . , , , . , IBM . , , , -. , .].

, , , . NCR. , C-T-R , NCR, . , , C-T-R/IBM . , .

, NCR . NCR , , NCR. , , C-T-R. , IBM - - , , , . , , , , .

NCR. , , C-T-R. , , . . - ⠫ ( , ). IBM , [54 - , 1915, http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/multimedia/wav/thinkwav.wav.]. , . . , , , . , NCR, IBM, . IBM .

, , . . , . IBM , [55 - IBM , . 1950- Univac 70, , IBM , . , , . .: Emerson W. Pugh, Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, IBMs 360and Early 370Systems (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1991); John Harwood, The Interface: IBMand the Transformation of Corporate Design, 19451976(Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 2011), 59100.]. IBM , NCR. , IBM, , [56 - 1950- , .].

, , , . , , , IBM. Π - 1990-, , , . , , , , IBM. ʠ1930- , , , , . IBM , . ʠ1980- IBM 400 ; 1 170. , , . . [57 - , , .]. , IBM[58 - , Trever Boyns, Accounting, Information, and Communication Systems in Jones and Zeitlin, The Oxford Handbook of Business History, 447469. . James W. Cortada, All the Facts: AHistory of Information in the United States since 1870(New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), , , , .].

, . . , . , 蠫 . -, . ; , , 1950-, , , IBM, - .

໠ , , . IBM 1942, - : , - [59 - Thomas J. Watson, MenMinutesMoney: ACollection of Excerpts from Talks and Messages Delivered and Written at Various Times (New York: International Business Machines Corporation, 1934), 71.]. , . 1920- , 5 , 95 . , , IBM. .




C-T-RIBM:


, . , , . C-T-R , [60 - Maney, The Maverick and His Machine, 57.]. , , . C-T-R, , . . 1917, .

C-T-R . NCR. , C-T-R . , , [61 - , 63.]. , . , , C-T-R. , , , . . , . - . 1930- IBM.  Computing Scale , , .  ITR . , C-T-R. .

(, NCR), , 19141916, . , , /, NCR, : , . , , [62 - , 66.]. , . , .

, . - , - . ( ) , , . .

ITR, , ; . C-T-R, ITR . ITR , , . , C-T-R 1920-. , C-T-R. , , . - 1916, , ITR , .  1914 1915 .

1915 , - , , , , . , Computing Scale , , , ITR , Tabulating Machine.

1910- , C-T-R. , , ITR, , , . , NCR, NCR , . , . - , , . , , . . , , . . C-T-R , , , , . .

1915. NCR, , . C-T-R, , . , , , ; , , . . 1912 , 1918 1922, IBM [63 - IBM 1927, (19301934), , , - . 1944. .: Walter D. Jones, edited by Don Black, Watson and Me: ALife at IBM, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 25, no. 3(JulySeptember 2003): 418.]. . , . . , , -T-R 1914, -T-R, , . , , . , - 1912, , , 45 :



, , , , .


, , , ( ) [64 - Jones, Watson and Me.].

1914 4,1 , 1917 8,3. 400 1,6 , . Computing Scale , ; , , . ITR - .  1917 ITR , .

Tabulating Machines. 1917 650 1400 1100 . , , . Tabulating Machines ITR , . 80 , , Computing Scale , , . 110 . , , , , . C-T-R [65 - Sobel, IBM, 64.]. C-T-R , , , , , .

 1918 , ; . . , , .  1919 C-T-R , . , . C-T-R . , , . , , , , , , , . ʠ1923 C-T-R - , . ; , . - . , , 1919 13 , 2,1 .

. 1920, . , , , Tabulating ITR. . 1921, , .

, 40. Computing Scale , ; - 216 . , - . . ; C-T-R 100 . , . . - ; 10 , . C-T-R, , . , 1920- . , , , . , Guaranty Trust, C-T-R 1911, , Tabulating Machines .  1921 1922 C-T-R, , C-T-R, , .

, , . , . 1922, , ITR - . , Computing Scale. , . , , ; , 1922.

, . , . , . , , , . IBM [66 - 1990 , 1921-. - , 1960-, , System 360.].







, 廠 . , , . , , , . , -. 1914 ITR , , .

IBM [67 - Sobel, IBM.]. , , , . IBM : , [68 - Watson, MenMinutesMoney, 68. . , IBM 10-K, 2016: , , , -, . IBM, , , , - . IT-, , ; . .: International Business Machines Corporation, 10-KReport, in 2015Annual Report, 22.]. , IBM . ʠ1920 , C-T-R : , [69 - Watson, MenMinutesMoney, 48.]. - IBM, :



,



.


C-T-R; , IBM. , , , , , - . , , ; , [70 - - , , . , 1980-. , , NCR , .]. , IBM, , , . , , , . IBM, . 1914 1924 IBM . , C-T-R. , , . : , . ʠ1930- , IBM , -, . C-T-R IBM .

C-T-R , . , . [71 - Watson, MenMinutesMoney, 15, 17, 19, 23.]. , , . .

, , , . 1910- , , , NCR, IBM: , , : ɻ. , NCR, C-T-R -, 50, ; : . -, , . ; : 蠫 ( ). : 蠫 ; [72 - , , , . IBM, , , - . , , .].

, ࠫɻ . , ( ) , , . , , [73 - . .: Watson, MenMinutesMoney; As aMan Thinks: Thomas J. Watson and His Philosophy of Life as Expressed in His Editorials (New York: IBM, 1954).].

. , , . , , ; . , -, , ( , - , ) . . , - ( ). - -.

? , , C-T-R/IBM. , , , , . - (.2.2) . -. , - , . , ; . 1914- 1930- , , , , NCR. , -, ; , .






.2.2

- (), , . .

IBM



, IBM . , ( ). , . , 200 , 200. , , 200, , , 200, , ꠫ . 200, , , 1000, , 200, 1200 , , , 1200. - - IBM, 1200 . , , , , . IBM - . . .

. , , , . , . , , , . (, - ).

, , - ( 200 ), ( 蠫 ) 100.  NCR 100. : , , . 100 . 80 , .   C-T-R , 20; ( 1920-), 1930- 800.

, -, , , , , . ; . , ; 100 . IBM, . , , 100[74 - 1928. IBM 1949 1987-.]. , , 蠫 . , .

, 100 .  NCR , . , , C-T-R, IBM , , . , , , , [75 - , , , IBM.].

NCR; . , C-T-R, NCR 200[76 - Paul Christ and Rolph Anderson, The Impact of Technology on Evolving Roles of Salespeople, Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 3, no. 2(2011): 173193.]. , (, ), . , , . - , . . - , . , , - .

, , , , , , . ʠ1930- IBM , . - ; , , , (). 1920- , ; , . , , , . , , ( ), . , 1910- 1920- .

, , , , NCR: . , ; . , . IBM () . IBM ( , ), , , . - (), , [77 - James W. Cortada, IBMBranch Offices: What They Were, How They Worked, 1920s1980s, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 39, no. 3(JulySeptember 2017): 923.].

, . , , , , , , , , , 蠫, , .  1920- -; . , NCR. , , , , . , [78 - .].

-, , , , . , . , IBM, , . - , ( ) , , . , . , - , , IBM . .

, , , IBM . . 1920- IBM , 1[79 - 1980- IBM 1 ! 1970- .]. NCR, . NCR IBM , , , [80 - Andrea Tone, The Business of Benevolence: Industrial Paternalism in Progressive America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).]. , , , [81 - John J. Schleppi, It Pays: John H. Patterson and Industrial Recreation at the National Cash Register Company, Journal of Sport History 6, no. 3(1979): 2028; Elspeth H. Brown, Welfare Capitalism and Documentary Photography: NCRand the Visual Production of aGlobal Model Factory, History of Photography 32, no. 2(2008): 137151; Helena Chance, Mobilising the Modern Industrial Landscape for Sports and Leisure in the early 20th Century, International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 11(2012): 16001625. . .: Philip Scranton and Patrick Fridenson, Reimaging Business History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 102106.].

C-T-R, , , , IBM . , . , . . 1910, , , , C-T-R . .

. , , . IBM, . ⠫ , 100 , , . , . IBM, , . IBM , . , 1930- , .

IBM . 1924 , . , , . , , , , , , . , 1924. . , . , , .






.2.3

- C-T-R. 1914 1924



C-T-R? , ( , 1914)? (-). , -. IBM , , , . IBM , , . , , , , ; 1920- . , , 1935 IBM [82 - IBM , 1933-; , , , IBM 1935.]. , IBM . , - ( , ) . , , IBM, Apple . -, , , [83 - , , ( ) , , -.]. ʠ1924 , , . C-T-R IBM. .2.3 - IBM.







1923 , . - , ; . 73 - , , . Ӡ , , , - , , . (), . , , , . 50, , . .  1922 9 , , 1923- 11 . , : 1922 1 , 1923- 2. C-T-R 3 , . . 2.1 , IBM.

IBM; . 1910- 1920- , : , .  1914 C-T-R , , , . - , , , , .   ; , . , [84 - , IBM 1914, , , , ; William Laznick, Innovative Enterprise and Historical Transformation, Enterprise and Society 3, no. 1(2002): 3554.]. . . . ; .



2.1

, C-T-R/IBM 1914- 1924- ( )




: Emerson W. Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1995), . 323.



, . -[85 - Alfred D. Chandler Jr., Strategy and Structure (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1962); Pankaj Chemawat, Competition and Business Strategy in Historical Perspective, Business History Review 76, no. 1(Spring 2002): 3774.]. , , , . , , 1914 C-T-R . . , , [86 - , . Chandler, Strategy and Structure.]. . , , , , .

, , 1920- 1930- IBM . ; .  1920- , , , , [87 - Adam Smith, Correspondence of Adam Smith, Glasgow edition, ed. E. C. Mossner and I. S. Ross (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 55.]. , ( , , ), , [88 - .: Jonathan Zeitlin, The Historical Alternatives Approach, in Jones and Zeitlin, The Oxford Handbook of Business History, 12129; Scranton and Fridenson, Reimagining Business History, 102107.]. , , . , .

. . C-T-R/IBM, . , , , (, ), . , , , [89 - Chandler, Strategy and Structure, 1415.]. .

, , , , , [90 - ., : Naomi R. Lamoreaux, Daniel M. G. Raff, and Peter Temin, Beyond Markets and Hierarchies: Toward aNew Synthesis of American Business History American Historical Review 108, no. 2(April 2003): 404433.]. C-T-R , , , , , . IBM , . , , (, ), , , , , . , IBM , [91 - Matthias Kipping and Behl?l ?sdiken, Business History and Management Studies, Jones and Zeitlin, The Oxford Handbook of Business History, 99104.].

, , , ; . , -, , , , , . -, , , , , , IBM. , . , IBM . -, , IBM , , . , , . , , , , , [92 - Cortada, All the Facts. Scranton and Friedenson, Reimagining Business History, Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Sicilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).].

C-T-R , , . [93 - Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 18501904(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); William G. Roy, Socializing Capital: The Rise of the Large Industrial Corporation in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).]. , , , C-T-R , [94 - Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development, . , 1926. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934); Joel Mokyr, The Gifts of Athena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002); Joel Mokyr, ACulture of Growth: Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016); William Bauman, Robert E. Litan, and Carl J. Schramm, Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism, and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007); Deirdre Nansen McCloskey, Bourgeois Equality: How Ideas, Not Capital or Institutions, Enriched the World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).].

IBM ⠫ 1920- . , IBM, , 25 . , , . IBM , , , IBM . , , , , . IBM . , . 1924, 3.




3

IBM



, , . .

. , 1926.[95 - Thomas J. Watson, MenMinutesMoney: ACollection of Excerpts from Talks and Messages Delivered and Written at Various Times (New York: International Business Machines Corporation, 1934), 82.]

15 1924 Wall Street Journal , ; , International Business Machines Corp. - , Computing-Tabulating-Recording Co. , Computing-Tabulating-Recording Co.; . , - . , Tabulating Machine Co., - International Time Recording Co. Dayton Scale Co., [96 - Computing-Tabulating Changing Its Name, Wall Street Journal, February 15, 1924, 3.]




.


.

, (https://www.litres.ru/dzheyms-kortada/ibm-padenie-i-vozrozhdenie-velikoy-kompanii/) .

Visa, MasterCard, Maestro, , , , PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI , .



notes








1


, IBM . , , IBM. , Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Gesellschaft. - IBMand the Holocaust , IBM - - . . .




2


Alex Planes, Should the Dow Jones Get Rid of International Business Machines Corp?, The Motley Fool, July 16, 2014, http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2014/07/16/should-the-dow-jones-get-rid-of-international-busi.aspx.




3


1964 System/360 , , , , , , .




4


Harold Evans, Do IMake Myself Clear? (New York: Little, Brown, 2017), 212.




5


Robert J. Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 570571.




6


Mairi Maclean, Charles Harvey, and Stewart R. Clegg, Organization Theory in Business and Management History: Present Status and Future Prospects, Business History Review 91, no. 3(Autumn 2017): 457481.




7


Geoffrey D. Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982); Lars Heide, Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 18801945(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009). Lars Heide, Shaping aTechnology: American Punched Card Systems 18801914, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 19, no. 4(OctoberDecember 1997): 2841. . Friedrich W. Kistermann, Hollerith Punched Card System Development (19051913), IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 27, no. 1(JanuaryMarch 2005): 5666. 1929.




8


Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 337339; Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition (New York: Times Books, 1982); Emerson W. Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1995); Rowena Olegario, IBMand the Two Thomas J. Watsons, Creating Modern Capitalism: How Entrepreneurs, Companies, and Countries Triumphed in Three Industrial Revolutions, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 349395; Kevin Maney, The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2003.




9


, . : Charles R. Flint, Memories of an Active Life: Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax (New York: G. P. Putnams Sons, 1923); Frederick Lincoln Fuller, My Half Century as an Inventor ( , 1938); Walter D. Jones, Watson and Me: Life at IBM, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 24, no. 1(JanuaryMarch 2002): 418.




10


Alfred D. Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 377417.




11


. (19182007), , , , .




12


Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, 118.




13


U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), part 2, 598.




14


. .: Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth.




15


(19462010) , , , .




16


James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 7.




17


Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 18701920(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 12.




18


, , William G. Roy, Socializing Capital: The Rise of the Large Industrial Corporation in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 18, 26.




19


. .: Flint, Memories of an Active Life.




20


; , .




21


Walter A. Friedman, Birth of aSalesman: The Transformation of Selling in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 107, 147150.




22


Christophe Lcuyer, Making Silicon Valley: Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 19301970(Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 2007).




23


- 1990- IBM - , ( -). , - IBM. . Mary McAleer Vizard, I.B.M. Planning aScaled-Down New Headquarters, New York Times, August 20, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/20/realestate/ibm-planning-a-scaled-down-new-headquarters.html?pagewanted=all.




24


, , 1980-!




25


, , Heide, Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion. - . .: Thomas J. Watson Jr. and Peter Petre, Father, Son & Co.: My Life at IBMand Beyond (New York: Bantam, 1990). Richard S. Tedlow, The Watson Dynasty: The Fiery Reign and Troubled Legacy of IBMs Founding Father and Son (New York: HarperBusiness, 2003).




26


Edward Aswad and Suzanne M. Meredith, IBMin Endicott (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2005), 12.




27


Savage & Polites Antique Clocks Identification and Price Guide, www.antiqueclockspriceguide.com. 1916- 1949-.




28


Sobel, IBM; Austrian, Herman Hollerith; Martin Campbell-Kelly, William Aspray, Nathan Ensmenger, and Jeffrey R. Yost, AHistory of the Information Machine, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2014), 340.




29


ʠ1880- , , . James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 18651956(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 2578.




30


Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York: Random House, Vintage, 1973), 172.




31


Beniger, The Control Revolution, 416.




32


, , 76,2 , 21 1890- . , , Cortada, Before the Computer, 4448.




33


Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 57.




34


James W. Cortada, All the Facts: AHistory of Information in the United States since 1870(New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 148152.




35


Remington Rand Sperry Univac.




36


IBM 1950- 1970- - , , , ; - 1956 Watson and Petre, Father, Son & Co.




37


Austrian, Herman Hollerith.




38


Sobel, IBM, 1213.




39


Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 325.




40


, , , C-T-R. .: Boxes 27, Flint Papers, - .




41


313719. .: Bulletin No. 61, October 22, 1913, ⠫Personal Miscellany Clippings, Box 7, Flint Papers, - .




42


Charles R. Flint Papers, - . : http://archives.nypl.org/mss/1032.




43


James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies (New York: HarperBusiness, 1994).




44


Kenneth Lipartito, Business Culture, in The Oxford Handbook of Business History, ed. Geoffrey Jones and Jonathan Zeitlin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 603628.




45


Robert Sobel, IBM: Colossus in Transition (New York: Times Books, 1982), 49.




46


IBM , CEO, , , , -, - , . , , , , , . , , 1980-, 2010-. , , , , .




47


James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 18651956(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 6478.




48


Sobel, IBM, 45.




49


, , -, 1950-.




50


, IBM , - , . , . - , , . , . - , ( , , ).




51


, 10 1982. : , , , , . - . , , - .




52


Kevin Maney, The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2003), 1213.




53


Remington Rand Sperry Rand, Univac 1950-, - . ʠIBM , . , , , . , IBM . , , , -. , .




54


, 1915, http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/multimedia/wav/thinkwav.wav.




55


IBM , . 1950- Univac 70, , IBM , . , , . .: Emerson W. Pugh, Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, IBMs 360and Early 370Systems (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1991); John Harwood, The Interface: IBMand the Transformation of Corporate Design, 19451976(Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 2011), 59100.




56


1950- , .




57


, , .




58


, Trever Boyns, Accounting, Information, and Communication Systems in Jones and Zeitlin, The Oxford Handbook of Business History, 447469. . James W. Cortada, All the Facts: AHistory of Information in the United States since 1870(New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), , , , .




59


Thomas J. Watson, MenMinutesMoney: ACollection of Excerpts from Talks and Messages Delivered and Written at Various Times (New York: International Business Machines Corporation, 1934), 71.




60


Maney, The Maverick and His Machine, 57.




61


, 63.




62


, 66.




63


IBM 1927, (19301934), , , - . 1944. .: Walter D. Jones, edited by Don Black, Watson and Me: ALife at IBM, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 25, no. 3(JulySeptember 2003): 418.




64


Jones, Watson and Me.




65


Sobel, IBM, 64.




66


1990 , 1921-. - , 1960-, , System 360.




67


Sobel, IBM.




68


Watson, MenMinutesMoney, 68. . , IBM 10-K, 2016: , , , -, . IBM, , , , - . IT-, , ; . .: International Business Machines Corporation, 10-KReport, in 2015Annual Report, 22.




69


Watson, MenMinutesMoney, 48.




70


- , , . , 1980-. , , NCR , .




71


Watson, MenMinutesMoney, 15, 17, 19, 23.




72


, , , . IBM, , , - . , , .




73


. .: Watson, MenMinutesMoney; As aMan Thinks: Thomas J. Watson and His Philosophy of Life as Expressed in His Editorials (New York: IBM, 1954).




74


1928. IBM 1949 1987-.




75


, , , IBM.




76


Paul Christ and Rolph Anderson, The Impact of Technology on Evolving Roles of Salespeople, Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 3, no. 2(2011): 173193.




77


James W. Cortada, IBMBranch Offices: What They Were, How They Worked, 1920s1980s, IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing 39, no. 3(JulySeptember 2017): 923.




78


.




79


1980- IBM 1 ! 1970- .




80


Andrea Tone, The Business of Benevolence: Industrial Paternalism in Progressive America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).




81


John J. Schleppi, It Pays: John H. Patterson and Industrial Recreation at the National Cash Register Company, Journal of Sport History 6, no. 3(1979): 2028; Elspeth H. Brown, Welfare Capitalism and Documentary Photography: NCRand the Visual Production of aGlobal Model Factory, History of Photography 32, no. 2(2008): 137151; Helena Chance, Mobilising the Modern Industrial Landscape for Sports and Leisure in the early 20th Century, International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 11(2012): 16001625. . .: Philip Scranton and Patrick Fridenson, Reimaging Business History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 102106.




82


IBM , 1933-; , , , IBM 1935.




83


, , ( ) , , -.




84


, IBM 1914, , , , ; William Laznick, Innovative Enterprise and Historical Transformation, Enterprise and Society 3, no. 1(2002): 3554.




85


Alfred D. Chandler Jr., Strategy and Structure (Cambridge, MA: MITPress, 1962); Pankaj Chemawat, Competition and Business Strategy in Historical Perspective, Business History Review 76, no. 1(Spring 2002): 3774.




86


, . Chandler, Strategy and Structure.




87


Adam Smith, Correspondence of Adam Smith, Glasgow edition, ed. E. C. Mossner and I. S. Ross (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 55.




88


.: Jonathan Zeitlin, The Historical Alternatives Approach, in Jones and Zeitlin, The Oxford Handbook of Business History, 12129; Scranton and Fridenson, Reimagining Business History, 102107.




89


Chandler, Strategy and Structure, 1415.




90


., : Naomi R. Lamoreaux, Daniel M. G. Raff, and Peter Temin, Beyond Markets and Hierarchies: Toward aNew Synthesis of American Business History American Historical Review 108, no. 2(April 2003): 404433.




91


Matthias Kipping and Behl?l ?sdiken, Business History and Management Studies, Jones and Zeitlin, The Oxford Handbook of Business History, 99104.




92


Cortada, All the Facts. Scranton and Friedenson, Reimagining Business History, Kenneth Lipartito and David B. Sicilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).




93


Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 18501904(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); William G. Roy, Socializing Capital: The Rise of the Large Industrial Corporation in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).




94


Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development, . , 1926. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934); Joel Mokyr, The Gifts of Athena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002); Joel Mokyr, ACulture of Growth: Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016); William Bauman, Robert E. Litan, and Carl J. Schramm, Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism, and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007); Deirdre Nansen McCloskey, Bourgeois Equality: How Ideas, Not Capital or Institutions, Enriched the World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).




95


Thomas J. Watson, MenMinutesMoney: ACollection of Excerpts from Talks and Messages Delivered and Written at Various Times (New York: International Business Machines Corporation, 1934), 82.




96


Computing-Tabulating Changing Its Name, Wall Street Journal, February 15, 1924, 3.



IBM – компания, создавшая целый рынок информационных технологий и задавшая вектор его развития на следующие 70 лет. За свою историю IBM несколько раз оказывалась на грани банкротства, но в результате становилась только сильнее. Сегодня IBM – передовой технологический гигант, компания-икона, символ устойчивости, инноваций и долгосрочного процветания.

В своей книге Джеймс Кортада, историк, почти 40 лет проработавший в IBM, описывает крупнейшие технологические прорывы, бизнес-культуру и управленческие стратегии, которые сделали IBM неуязвимой стабильной компанией с ежегодным доходом в десятки млрд $.

В формате PDF A4 сохранён издательский дизайн.

Как скачать книгу - "IBM. Падение и возрождение великой компании" в fb2, ePub, txt и других форматах?

  1. Нажмите на кнопку "полная версия" справа от обложки книги на версии сайта для ПК или под обложкой на мобюильной версии сайта
    Полная версия книги
  2. Купите книгу на литресе по кнопке со скриншота
    Пример кнопки для покупки книги
    Если книга "IBM. Падение и возрождение великой компании" доступна в бесплатно то будет вот такая кнопка
    Пример кнопки, если книга бесплатная
  3. Выполните вход в личный кабинет на сайте ЛитРес с вашим логином и паролем.
  4. В правом верхнем углу сайта нажмите «Мои книги» и перейдите в подраздел «Мои».
  5. Нажмите на обложку книги -"IBM. Падение и возрождение великой компании", чтобы скачать книгу для телефона или на ПК.
    Аудиокнига - «IBM. Падение и возрождение великой компании»
  6. В разделе «Скачать в виде файла» нажмите на нужный вам формат файла:

    Для чтения на телефоне подойдут следующие форматы (при клике на формат вы можете сразу скачать бесплатно фрагмент книги "IBM. Падение и возрождение великой компании" для ознакомления):

    • FB2 - Для телефонов, планшетов на Android, электронных книг (кроме Kindle) и других программ
    • EPUB - подходит для устройств на ios (iPhone, iPad, Mac) и большинства приложений для чтения

    Для чтения на компьютере подходят форматы:

    • TXT - можно открыть на любом компьютере в текстовом редакторе
    • RTF - также можно открыть на любом ПК
    • A4 PDF - открывается в программе Adobe Reader

    Другие форматы:

    • MOBI - подходит для электронных книг Kindle и Android-приложений
    • IOS.EPUB - идеально подойдет для iPhone и iPad
    • A6 PDF - оптимизирован и подойдет для смартфонов
    • FB3 - более развитый формат FB2

  7. Сохраните файл на свой компьютер или телефоне.

Книги серии

Аудиокниги серии

Последние отзывы
Оставьте отзыв к любой книге и его увидят десятки тысяч людей!
  • константин александрович обрезанов:
    3★
    21.08.2023
  • константин александрович обрезанов:
    3.1★
    11.08.2023
  • Добавить комментарий

    Ваш e-mail не будет опубликован. Обязательные поля помечены *