Книга - Amazing Thinkers & Humanitarians: B2

Amazing Thinkers & Humanitarians: B2
Katerina Mestheneou

Fiona MacKenzie


The inspiring stories of 6 people who changed history.Contents:Confucius, the great Chinese philosopherSocrates, the great Greek philosopherAristotle, the first to organize scientific knowledgeWilliam Wilberforce who ended the British slave tradeKarl Marx who wrote The Communist Manifesto and Das KapitalMahatma Gandhi who helped free India from British ruleBRITISH ENGLISHWord count: 16,058Headword count: 1,701PLUS: visit www.collinselt.com/readers for videos, teacher resources and self-study materials.This book is Level 4 in the Collins ELT Readers series.Level 4 is equivalent to CEF level B2.About the Amazing People series:A unique opportunity for learners of English to read about the exceptional lives and incredible abilities of some of the most insightful people the world has seen.Each book contains six short stories, told by the characters themselves, as if in their own words. The stories explain the most significant parts of each character’s life, giving an insight into how they came to be such an important historic figure.After each story, a timeline presents the most major events in their life in a clear and succinct fashion. The timeline is ideal for checking comprehension or as a basis for project work or further research.Created in association with The Amazing People Club.About Collins ELT Readers:Collins ELT Readers are divided into four levels:Level 1 – elementary (A2)Level 2 – pre-intermediate (A2-B1)Level 3 – intermediate (B1)Level 4 – upper intermediate (B2)Each level is carefully graded to ensure that the learner both enjoys and benefits from their reading experience.




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CONTENTS





Cover

Title Page

Introduction

The Grading Scheme

Confucius

Socrates

Aristotle

William Wilberforce

Karl Marx

Mahatma Gandhi

Glossary

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Copyright (#litres_trial_promo)

About the Publisher








INTRODUCTION


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Collins Amazing People Readers are collections of short stories. Each book presents the life story of five or six people whose lives and achievements have made a difference to our world today. The stories are carefully graded to ensure that you, the reader, will both enjoy and benefit from your reading experience.

You can choose to enjoy the book from start to finish or to dip in to your favourite story straight away. Each story is entirely independent.

After every story a short timeline brings together the most important events in each person’s life into one short report. The timeline is a useful tool for revision purposes.

Words which are above the required reading level are underlined the first time they appear in each story. All underlined words are defined in the glossary at the back of the book. Levels 1 and 2 take their definitions from the Collins COBUILD Essential English Dictionary and levels 3 and 4 from the Collins COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary.

To support both teachers and learners, additional materials are available online at www.collinselt.com/readers (http://www.collinselt.com/readers).




The Amazing People Club





Collins Amazing People Readers are adaptations of original texts published by The Amazing People Club. The Amazing People Club is an educational publishing house. It was founded in 2006 by educational psychologist and management leader Dr Charles Margerison and publishes books, eBooks, audio books, iBooks and video content which bring readers ‘face to face’ with many of the world’s most inspiring and influential characters from the fields of art, science, music, politics, medicine and business.







THE GRADING SCHEME


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The Collins COBUILD Grading Scheme has been created using the most up-to-date language usage information available today. Each level is guided by a brand new comprehensive grammar and vocabulary framework, ensuring that the series will perfectly match readers’ abilities.




For more information on the Collins COBUILD Grading Scheme, including a full list of the grammar structures found at each level, go to www.collinselt.com/readers/gradingscheme (http://www.collinselt.com/readers/gradingscheme).

Also available online: Make sure that you are reading at the right level by checking your level on our website (www.collinselt.com/readers/levelcheck (http://www.collinselt.com/readers/levelcheck)).





Confucius (#ue48a8e63-5ad9-5cd4-b28e-2c5edd8afe21)







551 BCE–479 BCE

the great Chinese philosopher






He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger. Real knowledge is understanding that we actually know very little.






I was born a very long time ago – the story of my life was not written down until a long time after my death, so many of the facts are uncertain. But here I will tell you what was believed about my life and the events that shaped my thinking. I was born in China in the summer of 551 BCE – nobody can agree on the exact date and naturally I was too young to remember it myself. I was born in the village of Zou, in the state of Lu, near present-day Qufu in Shandong Province. My father was from an aristocratic family of warriors – brave, experienced fighters – and he died when I was three years old. This is not surprising when you know that he was about forty years older than my mother. Despite his family background, my father left us little money – the family had lost their fortune some time before – and we were often hungry. In Shandong Province, the winters were extremely cold, and just staying alive was difficult at times. I managed to bring in some money by working as a shepherd – looking after sheep – and I also took care of a local farmer’s cows, so we did not starve.

My mother did her best to educate me and she taught me many fine lessons about life. The hours I spent with the animals gave me the chance to think about life and what made it good. I asked myself about how we should live, what was fair and unfair and how people should live together. As I grew older and became a teenager, these questions became all the more important to me. When I was 19 years old, I met a girl called Qi Guan. Within a short time we had got married and by the time I was 20, we had started our family. After the birth of our son, King Li, we went on to have two more children but our marriage was not a happy one. When I was 23, my mother died which affected me deeply for the next three years.

After my mother’s death, I started studying philosophy. Already, one of my ‘life’ questions had been answered – as a family we learnt to understand each other’s emotional needs. However, as I had a wife and children and all the extra costs that came with a family, I had to make sure that our practical needs were met as well as our emotional ones. I needed to make some more money. Because I could read and write, and many people at that time could not, I found a job as a clerk – keeping records and doing the accounts – for the Duke of Lu, the ruler of the state.

Lu was a powerful man who spent every day making decisions about other people’s lives. Some people thought he was fair while others felt that he was against them. According to the way each person had been treated, I saw happiness, sadness and anger in their faces. Understanding how much we are affected by the things that people say and do, I developed my Golden Rule – you should not do to others what you would not like them to do to you. Each day at work, watching how people made decisions, I formed my views. The solutions to the questions that I asked myself were tried and tested each day and people came to respect me. I enjoyed working hard and I tried to be reliable, both of which were noted, and I was promoted.






I lived during what became known as the Spring and Autumn Period in Chinese history. The country consisted of many small states that were constantly fighting for power. Chinese society was going through many changes as traditional values were challenged. There was tension and stress all around me and I wanted to find a way in which we could live in harmony – a state of peaceful cooperation. I had very clear views on how people should behave towards each other. Everyone had a specific place in society and according to where they fitted in, they had different roles to play and had different duties that they were responsible for.

Taking this a step further, I believed that there were five different types of relationships in the world. The first was between ruler and subject – the person living under the authority of the ruler. The second was that between father and son. The third was between elder brother and younger brother. The fourth was between husband and wife, and the last was between friend and friend. Apart from the last type, all the others involved one person having authority over another. The person who was not in the superior position of authority had to obey and respect the person who was, and the one with all the power had a duty to be responsible for and kind to the other. In my language, I called this duty to be a loving person ren.






In 518 BCE, I left my job and spent my time reading and teaching. My aim was to encourage and motivate my students, not just to tell them what was right and wrong. It didn’t matter to me who my students were or what social class they belonged to, I just loved teaching. This was unusual because at that time, education was something only the rich had access to. My approach seemed to be popular because it wasn’t long before I had a large number of followers – people who supported me and believed in what I was saying. I decided to travel to the imperial capital of China, Lo-yang, so that I could learn about the customs and traditions of the empire. Then, in 517 BCE, when I had come back, the state of Lu was involved in war and I left again, along with the Duke of Lu, and went to a neighbouring state called Qi. Here I learnt about music. The next period of my life was spent with my followers and I was also a teacher.

At the age of 51 in 500 BCE, I became the Justice Minister of the state. This was a job that required balance between the law and politics and I saw myself not as an inventor of the law but a messenger of it. In each case I listened to, all the facts had to be collected, and then interpreted and applied. I believed that having a moral viewpoint, rather than just following the law, was vital. People would ask me if we needed laws. My answer was that if people always behaved well to each other, then that would be enough, and no, it was not necessary to have laws. But people can be greedy and unfair, wanting more than their fair share, in which case, society cannot function without laws.






China at the time of Confucius

Another one of my beliefs was that we should appreciate our ancestors because without them we would not be here. I thought that it was vital to show respect for our living elders and family members, because without them, we would be alone. For me, the basis of a strong community was helping others, in the hope that they would help you in return. Life is a series of choices, choices which can benefit some people and disadvantage others. But it can be difficult to put the needs of others before the things we ourselves want. I believed that one of the keys to happiness was to understand other people and their needs. Another key was to be virtuous and by that, I mean behaving in an honest and moral way.

However, it is much easier to be virtuous in thought than it is in practice. For example, nobody wants to find themselves in the position where they may lose other people’s respect. This may happen if you make a stupid mistake. To avoid looking stupid, we sometimes try to hide the mistake we made and in the process we make more mistakes. I always thought that it was better to be honest and admit making the first mistake. In this way, not only do we avoid making the original situation worse, but also we can learn and improve, and make fewer mistakes in the future. But to do this, you have to get to know yourself. Knowing yourself is the first step in understanding other people. Without this first step, you will not be able to live with other people in a calm and pleasant way.

As well as asking me about the necessity of laws, people around me were curious about religion. Did we need to have religion in our lives, they asked me. My answer was that I did not find religion logical. All religions have ideas of what is good and bad, and often the religious rules as to what is allowed and what is not allowed are not flexible enough. Society changes but these rules stay the same. Another aspect of religion that I had difficulty with was the existence of a god. Was it possible that there was one god only, and that this god had all the answers? I doubted it very much. What I didn’t doubt was the need for some kind of belief system, but I didn’t know what form it should take.

In contrast, I truly believed in democracy. At any one time, there can only be one ruler but it should be the people who decide who is going to govern. Cruel and unfair rulers can then be removed from power. I saw leadership as being a gift, not an absolute right, and I believed that the person given the honour of ruling should be a virtuous person at all times. If they do not behave in a correct, ethical way, then people will rebel and choose a new leader. I knew that this system would work well in a small place where everyone knew each other, but I was not sure if it could be applied to somewhere much larger. How could a ruler communicate his beliefs and rules in an area where great distances had to be covered? If his word was not widely known, how could it be supported? If a leader was not supported, he could not be respected, and without respect, his future was at risk.






A Chinese temple

Virtue, for me, was the all-important characteristic for a leader. If people were ruled by laws and were punished when they broke them, they would try to avoid the punishment but would not change their behaviour. However, if a ruler was a virtuous person and ruled by example, that is, by always behaving in a moral and ethical way, then people would change their ‘bad’ behaviour and would start to be virtuous, too, without needing to be punished.






I stayed in my position as Minister of Justice in the state of Qi for four years and in that time, I was promoted to Prime Minister, but due to serious political disagreements, in 495 BCE I decided to leave both my job and the state of Qi. I travelled, going from one region to another, always in the company of my followers. I talked to people wherever I went, hoping that some of my principles would be adopted by them. I was especially hopeful that rulers would lead their people based on a system of virtue, but I did not see many examples of this. In 483 BCE, I returned to the state of Lu and continued my teaching. In 479 BCE, when I was 72, I died. My followers treated me as if I had been their father, and as was the custom at the time, mourned me for three years. After my death, my followers started to write down some of my theories and they produced a publication now known as the Analects. My beliefs could now be taught by others to later generations of students. In this way, the philosophical school of thought, Confucianism, was born.




The Life of Confucius









Socrates (#ue48a8e63-5ad9-5cd4-b28e-2c5edd8afe21)







c .470 BCE–399 BCE

the great Greek philosopher






My greatest belief, and one that guided me my whole life, was a simple one. If you have a problem and want to find the solution that is right for you, you have to make sure you ask the right questions.






I was born in the city of Athens, Greece in 470 BCE. My father, Sophroniscus, was a stonemason – someone who cuts stone for building work – and sculptor and my mother, Phaenarete, was a midwife. As you can imagine, we were not wealthy and we lived a simple life. I had the most basic education and then when I had finished school, my father taught me his trade. I also learned a great deal by watching him as he worked. Being a practical man, my father let his hands, rather than his mouth, do the talking. I trained myself to pay attention to detail and I tried to be a good apprentice, working hard.

Even though I tried, I was not very interested in becoming a stonemason. My real passion was listening to the stories the elders in our village told. Each day, I would hear these wise old men sharing their views with whoever would listen. They talked about what they knew, and their opinions differed depending on how they saw life. They would discuss problems of the present, such as how our way of life could be improved. They would look at examples from the past to help them reach conclusions. Ideas for the future were also considered, for example, whether new laws should be introduced to improve society and if so, which ones. Apart from practical issues, they also discussed more abstract topics, such as whether truth and certainty actually existed. Each would try to convince the others that their view was the correct one. Those who were respected for their attitude and contributions – for they were not all judged equally – usually had the most success.

To me, these debates were at the centre of reality. Unlike the lifeless stone and wood that I worked with every day, people were warm and alive and were capable of thought. I believed that it was our duty to share and compare what was in our minds in order to improve and develop as human beings. This and only this would lead to happiness and a contented, rich life. I had seen that wealthy people were not necessarily happier than the rest of us.

I had noticed that there are times in our lives when difficult decisions have to be made and we don’t know which direction to take to get the best result. Let me explain what I mean. From an early age I had seen people – my mother is a good example – worry about areas of their lives that they thought were problematic. As with all families, we had plenty of disagreements. My mother found it difficult to keep the peace and be fair at the same time. At times I am sure that I was responsible for making her upset and angry but often she didn’t ask me why I was behaving badly. Instead, she would decide for herself what was troubling me and would act accordingly. She wasn’t always right and I discovered how important it was to share thoughts and ideas.






A Greek chariot






In 431 BCE, the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta began. I was a soldier at the time, doing my military service. In the heat of battle there was little time for debate and sharing one’s thoughts – differences were settled by fighting – but having a set of principles did help to guide me. I tried to be brave and fearless. People later told me that I was. I was lucky enough to be able to save the life of an Athenian general called Alcibiades, who was respected and well-liked in Athens.

Greek society in the 4


century BCE was divided up into cities, each functioning as a state with its own government and rules. It was normal for them all to be in conflict with each other, but there was an alternative way of dealing with such conflicts – a great competition that we called the Olympic Games. The original Olympics were held in honour of Zeus, who, according to Greek mythology, was one of the twelve gods who lived in the temple of the gods at Mount Olympus. Zeus was the father and king of the gods. In the town of Olympia a huge, impressive statue of him was built and Greeks from all over the country came to see it. It was here that the Games were first held.

All the Greek city states sent representatives to compete in the games. Everyone taking part had to swear an oath to the king of the gods, and had to be able to speak Greek. It was important not only for the athletes to compete in sporting competitions, but also to participate in the many theatre, poetry, sculpture, dance and singing events that were held. The Games were the perfect occasion for everyone to celebrate their culture, their religion and their artistic talents.

In the beginning, the sporting competitions were open to both men and women, with the women taking part in a series of races called the Heraean Games, dedicated to the goddess Hera. Later on, however, women were excluded from competing and then were not even allowed to enter the stadium. Eventually this rule was relaxed and women were permitted to compete in equestrian events, that is, those involving horses. A Spartan princess called Cynisca, driving a four-horse chariot, was the first woman to become an Olympic winner.






Statue of Zeus in Olympia

In contrast, the first male Olympic champion was a man called Coroebus, a cook who won the first running event which covered the distance of 192 metres. For the men, there was a variety of events, all designed to test mental and physical strength as well as endurance. It was a rule that athletes had to train for at least ten months before the Games. Winners did not get medals. Instead, they were given a crown made from leaves, called a laurel wreath. They were also given a branch from an olive tree. As well as becoming a valued sporting event, the ancient Olympic Games became a great social occasion, too. People from the city states who were not athletes would meet to share ideas and do business and in this way the Games helped develop Greek culture and way of life.

But, of course, real life was not just about taking part in sporting and cultural events, nor was it about being polite to each other. Politics, too, had its place and where there was politics, there was also conflict, caused by various types of bad behaviour. People tried to dominate each other; they tried to cheat each other; and they were jealous, wanting what their neighbours had and they did not.

I had become interested in philosophy, and I was wondering about how social conditions could be improved, for example, how could we avoid injustice? I developed a method of investigation which people later called the Socratic Method. It consisted of my asking people, both rich and poor, questions based on political and ethical issues. The topics covered, among other things, courage, love and respect, and the way people saw themselves. I questioned anyone I found out and about in the city streets and I didn’t care whether they were willing or not to talk to me. I must have developed a particular style because young people would copy the way I talked. From people’s answers I intended to create what I saw as being ‘truths’. I would have the evidence I needed to state that I had more than just a theory. I would then use my evidence to try and make a better world and better living conditions. But finding real evidence could be difficult because people didn’t always want to answer my questions. When they did answer, they were often not truthful. I believed that those who were reluctant to give answers were those who had something to hide. I soon discovered that it was the honest people who had no problem with telling the truth.

I also believed that for the better world I was looking for to exist, politics had to be conducted in a honest way. That came back to people again. The government worked best when it was ruled by individuals who had the greatest ability and knowledge, and possessed a complete understanding of themselves. The only way to achieve this understanding was to ask the right questions and answer them truthfully.





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