Книга - The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A–Z of Fantastic Beings from Myth and Magic

The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures: The Ultimate A–Z of Fantastic Beings from Myth and Magic
John Matthews

Caitlin Matthews


From unicorns and trolls to werewolves and griffins, this comprehensive guide is the key to discovering every magical creature from myth, folklore and legend around the world.This compendium of magical creatures explores the history, folklore and mythology of fascinating beasts throughout all the magical worlds. Including stories, celebrations, traditions, and amazing facts, the book spans every major culture across the globe.Many of the fantastic creatures described in the book have appeared in the fictitious worlds of the Brothers Grimm, Lewis Carroll, J.K. Rowling, Tolkien and countless other writers who have stirred our imaginations since childhood fairytales. From unicorns, giants, fairies, elves, goblins, dwarves and trolls to nymphs, mermaids, sphinxes, ogres, cyclops, dragons, salamanders, basilisks, banshees, werewolves, griffins, centaurs, satyrs and gremlins – this is the ultimate reference book on creatures from the magical world.Organized from A to Z for easy reference, the cross–cultural focus spans from the most ancient of creatures to those which have come to prominence more recent ly. Discover everything from obscure magical beings to everyday animals that carry magical symbolism.Find out more in The Fantastic World of Magical Creatures.









The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures

John & Caitlín Matthews


the ultimate a—z of fantastic beings from myth and magic









Dedication (#ulink_14b45cf9-882b-5689-84df-73072fc7c0de)


This book is dedicated to the loving, wise and magical Dwina Murphy-Gibb




Table of Contents


Cover Page (#u6e670068-fd5f-52ba-8b32-e6f9199d7246)

Title Page (#ubd928d41-c2b1-57ea-8977-6eed3c9d221a)

Dedication (#u7d5ee697-b81e-5d09-9660-1dac6f12545a)

Foreword (#u9c5310a2-7d2d-5b5e-91f0-70eae2680c52)

Introduction (#u9fc5f308-1752-51a6-9e5a-7a3ec6f607a8)

A (#uc4adf0e4-070e-569c-8192-b259f7c16aba)

B (#uf3f15ce8-14e1-5d95-8177-a9b9dff649c3)

C (#u59564872-c7dc-5940-8399-73370e4897cb)

D (#ue12cb0de-69ee-5ac2-b569-53ca808d019b)

E (#u41943b82-2126-5006-a2f7-9553e92c7bd5)

F (#u71163666-5e25-50f7-bc9e-9172e46dbbd2)

G (#ue6aae2e5-e33a-50c0-aef2-805b736e2a96)

H (#u90294274-2999-5ae4-9706-ad568cdf25b0)

I (#u1b4ea90d-42ad-5526-8b8b-5b4f2a40efff)

J (#uc8880610-02be-5485-8a0c-b958b0730dcf)

K (#ue309cdb5-ca9b-5cba-bcbd-b4c0e758de73)

L (#u09c10b2b-4832-5ad7-a8df-ee3d873e8ff9)

M (#ud332e346-10ef-5168-810e-bc2da4f3c861)

N (#u3ed830b2-ee9b-5211-934e-7541c9769b91)

O (#u534ac72f-5660-54dd-8f83-b28528144c16)

P (#u74d78653-aabc-5a89-83ae-3617b8cbc514)

Q (#u40af1c58-5cea-56b3-bf1d-0a536eea4fad)

R (#u9b3f04d3-1749-5612-b10e-8b98747e9906)

S (#u260e9284-aaaf-5d49-a666-51d463c60789)

T (#ubaa842df-d0fa-5c83-960f-f99040b0d3a9)

U (#u4194e1d7-7ee7-5200-8fb2-7c241a0393a4)

V (#u4e662b2f-d7d9-5787-86c5-e15a80e6f3c2)

W (#u888921a5-ae54-5e18-a8cc-5a6c38e9949b)

X (#ufa61bb15-f463-5694-b04b-cde6a9d362ce)

Y (#u72bd00d0-7955-5998-919a-3bb54207a185)

Z (#u946041d0-65d1-541b-80cd-8bfd6028c5aa)

Bibliography (#u63e8a066-ab13-5c75-9245-5e501e38e7ba)

Index (#uecba6c53-7d4a-55e1-9467-e2f150f4a192)

Discover an Incredible World Full of Every Magical Creature You Could Possibly Imagine… (#ue2a83a92-d804-5c47-b70f-5978e6355562)

About the Author (#u694cc6d6-75c4-5461-98b8-814028f452a9)

Copyright (#u2feba068-094e-57fb-a0f8-0d1f40486b54)

About the Publisher (#u817e7372-427f-531a-86b0-7670d4378ed2)




Foreword (#ulink_4c61aa42-d7e4-566c-b8e3-f1b9c07f6fc7)

The City of Gargoyles


We live in a city of gargoyles and fabulous beasts. Extraordinary creatures of all kinds cavort, peer and grapple on most of the walls wherever we walk around Oxford. We are daily familiar with the griffin, the cockatrice, the winged lion and many other magical creatures who guard the buildings of our city.

When we began this book, we were explorers who had yet to see their first phoenix, but we were astonished at the abundance of magical creatures and the worldwide similarities in the stories and themes that make animals and other beings kin to us all. We did not take a microscope or any dissecting tools with us, nor did we wear the sceptic’s sharp-angled spectacles that make all objects under observation appear warped and foolish. Indeed, we did not start out to set ourselves up as any kind of experts. It has been love of all living things that has kept us on the road and helped us travel safely on the compass-point pathways that lead from north to south and from east to west. Some creatures showed themselves to us very generously, others were shy and retiring, and so we had to listen to what other people had reported about them. We hope that such second-hand sources do not amount to idle or damaging gossip, and that the creatures in question may retain their secret habitat free from molestation.

As you set out in these pages, we urge you to wander at will, rather than to read from A–Z. The magical creatures themselves will lead you to find the hidden country that is your unique imagination. We also believe that there are creatures we have not described because they have yet to come into being. As long as the land of imagination is allowed to remain, with such a rich source of fodder, extinction is not an option.

Of course, no book of this extent could be done without the help of all the students of mythical creatures who have gone before. We would like to acknowledge those who made our own researches easier, especially Jan Knappert, Carol Rose and J.C. Cooper, whose wonderfully rich works inspired us to hunt still further. Thanks also go to Emrys Matthews for help with the appearance of various creatures, especially the Vampire, Werewolf and Zombie, in the media, where so many of these have found a new home.



John & Caitlín Matthews

Oxford, 10 March 2005





Introduction (#ulink_c08ec94f-906d-5775-beca-b9c7ddc99478)

The Zoology of the Imagination


‘The zoology of our dreams is far poorer than the zoology of the Maker.’

Jorge Luis Borges,

The Book of Imaginary Beings.



Here are creatures of every possible kind. Creatures that hold up the world; creatures that destroy the world; creatures who are one half human, one half animal and sometimes even part god. Here are animals we think we know, but whose natures are magical; creatures who have strange characteristics such as faces in the middle of their bodies, animal heads, forelegs and back legs of different species. Here also are creatures that follow us, padding silently through the night; creatures that prey upon us, from the fearsome and terrible fire-breathing dragon, to the body of water that has a mind of its own and will leap up and chase you before gobbling you up. All are the product – in one form or another – of human imagination, from a time before thought was organized into word and word into text.

Curiously, it seems we have come full circle, since in our own time imagination responds more to visual stimuli rather than to ancient tales, and we are by no means bereft of creatures that enthral, scare and astonish us with their wonder. Film and TV are, for many of us, the first and most immediate source of myth and folktale – from the classic stop-frame animation of Ray Harryhausen, who gave us Medusa and Pegasus in Jason and the Argonauts, to Steven Spielberg’s Jurassic Park, with its credible dinosaurs, we have gained an appetite for ever more wondrous creatures. Whether we think of the computer-animated adventures of the ogre Shrek, or the mythic creatures conjured up, and sometimes ridden, by Harry Potter and his friends at Hogwarts Academy, we are not content simply to accommodate the creatures we have known from the past – we want more. The cinema has not been slow to satisfy this appetite and to stretch our imagination even further. George Lucas has given us a veritable menagerie of new species in his Star Wars universe – from Wookies to Bantha, from Rancor to Hutt. In addition, a legion of movies and TV shows such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel and Ultraviolet, numerous versions of Dracula and the Blade trilogy, have kept the history of Vampires and Werewolves fresh and alive in our dreams. These clearly demonstrate that we have not seen the last of the creatures that are to enter into creation.

The naming of animals is a primal task, one that God, in the Christian myth, gave to Adam in the Garden of Eden. Naming is a means of understanding more about an animal, for the name denotes the nature. Our collection is a wonderful menagerie where names have been arranged in alphabetical order for ease of consultation, but we urge you to read where your imagination prompts you, as it pleases you to explore, to learn more about Kkuuxuginaagits, the Ganiagwaidhegowa or the wonderfully onomatopoeic Toatoatavaya-o.

This book is a zoology of the imagination more than it is a natural history. It follows the myths of magical creatures wherever they show themselves, myths that are primal stories encoding understandings that we grasp by means of metaphor rather than with any literal-mindedness. Where will these creatures lead us?




The Supernaturals


Magical creatures and fabulous animals form part of the order of nature that we can call the supernaturals. The place of their existence is not in the physical world, but in the otherworldly realms that surround and permeate our own world. Because the Otherworld and our own everyday world overlap at different points, where time and place interface with timeless space, these are the points where we encounter its inhabitants. For example, the unicorn does not just live in times past because the stories we tell about it seem fabulous, it has its own timeless existence in the Otherworld. It can cross out of that realm and appear when it chooses and to whom it chooses.

Those who go in pursuit of the supernaturals must be prepared to follow them into other dimensions. It is only time and placebound folk who deny their existence, because they have lost the flexibility and sense of adventure to go in quest of them. These otherworldly dimensions and the coordinates of transfer between realms have become less known and frequented in an age that is becoming sealed into one side of reality. This reserve or scepticism about other realms is not a problem that has arisen just in our time, as Shakespeare shows in Henry IV, where Hotspur rants about Glendower’s arcane beliefs:

’…sometimes he angers me

With telling me of the moldwarp and the ant,

Of the dreamer Merlin and his prophecies, And of a dragon, and a finless fish,A clip-wing’d griffin, and a moulten raven, A couching lion, and ramping cat, And such a deal of skimble-shamble stuff As puts me from my faith.’

Around us are many such muggles as Hotspur who are content to inhabit mundane reality, just as in the world of Harry Potter, where magicians are distinct from nonmagicians. But we do not have to become magicians in order to explore the world of the supernaturals, though it does help to have a flexible imagination that is prepared to follow dreams, listen to traveller’s tales and explore the ways in which we can encounter these magical creatures for ourselves. If we are prepared to loiter on the borders of the worlds, we will find what we had never imagined as well as some of the things that we did.




Evolution and Memory


According to Darwinian theories of evolution, it is logical to consider animals as the forerunners of human life, to see all creatures as part of a huge family tree of living beings. Such scientific theories are seen as being at odds with the traditional stories and myths told about the creating creatures who take an active part in the formation of life, but the mythic imagination allows intelligence and wisdom to animals in ways that science discounts or ignores.

Darwin’s evolutionary pronouncements encouraged people to see themselves as descendants of a long tree of life, but when he made his discoveries public in the 19th century some people were astounded and distressed to find that they might have ape forebears, or that they might themselves be ‘monkey’s uncles’. In our own time, in 21st-century USA, the gap between received scientific history and religious tradition still jars the pedestrian foot on the pavement of scientific progress. In that country, and elsewhere, some fundamentalist Christians doggedly deny the Darwinian theory of evolution of our descent through a chain of creatures, and continue to assert that human beings are the result of nothing less than a direct and discrete creation by God. What they make of the discovery of early hominids and other fossils is unknown to us, but this must be highly inconvenient evidence to such believers at the very least. (See ‘Epilogue’, page 645.)

Natural historians tell us that our bodies bear the mark of our animal origins from the serpentine scales of our skins, the bovine horn of our nails and the animal hair that grows on our bodies, among a variety of other physiological and cellular similarities. But the link between people and animals is not merely an evolutionary connection. It is a fundamental mythic understanding that is shared by traditional societies: we are part of a sacred continuum of life that cannot be severed without supreme loss of meaning.

In traditional reckoning, the passing of time is frequently marked by the listing of a sequence of living beings, including a succession of animals. A traditional Irish reckoning of lifetimes, goes like this:

‘Three fields to a tree

Three trees to a hound

Three hounds to a horse

Three horses to a human being

Three human beings to a deer

Three deer to an eagle

Three eagles to a salmon

Three salmon to a yew

Three yews to an age of the world.’

This is not a measure of literal commensuration but a measurement of myth and memory. What is so salutary in this particular list is that human beings are located between horses and deer in mythic longevity.




The Shape of Story


In every culture throughout the world, there is a rich vein of animal myths and stories that are related to the primal beginnings of the world. These cycles of stories are often the very first stories ever told. In them, the wisdom and lore of the first animal beings relate how human beings should behave, revealing how things were first instituted. We see such animal story cycles from the unbroken oral traditions that pass through the classical, medieval and renaissance times, from the fables of Aesop to the animal stories of Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book and Just So stories. Buddha used the Jataka animal tales to teach people about right behaviour. In these stories, it is the animals that are in charge.

The animals of such stories are not domesticated, tamed or subdued to the will of humans, nor are they anthropomorphized animals or storybook characters whose actions mimic humans. They are wise beings in their own right whose words and actions cause the world to come into being. They are almighty, omniscient and full of wisdom. Some are tricksters, like Coyote or Raven, who both involve themselves in the laying down of laws for humans and whose lateral thinking discovers useful tools for living such as fire or agriculture. They are guardians for those times when humans overstep the respectful mark whereby all living creatures can be threatened by destruction or they are animals who partake of humanity in some way, like the Centaurs who are the teachers of humanity, bringing music, art and other essential skills.

We live in a time where we most urgently need the wisdom of the animals and creating creatures. Although Darwinian theories of evolution have told us that human beings are the summit of the evolutionary ladder, at the top of the food chain, we need the salutary wisdom of the animals to put us in our place, to remind us that we too are animals – sometimes animals ‘of little brain’. And like that supremely humble anthropomorphism Winnie the Pooh, a bear of little brain, with a little help from our animal advisors, we can sort out even the most troubling of problems.




Guardians of the Soul


In the Vedas, the Hindu god, Shiva, calls upon all the gods to help him overcome the invading asuras – ‘the non-gods’ or demons. They will be able to do this, he tells them, only if they are willing to leave off their godly forms and assume their animal nature. The gods are revolted by the idea and decline his invitation. We know from a wide range of world mythology how divinities have both humanoid as well as other animal forms – sometimes represented by their having animal heads on human bodies. A similar myth is told of the Olympian gods of Greece who fled the ravages of the monstrous Typhon by hiding themselves as animals among the Egyptian animal-headed gods so that they might not be noticed. This way of shape-shifting into animal form is not confined to gods alone.

From early times, we find the widespread notion that human beings have a multiple soul, part of which manifests in animal form. Shamanic traditions hold that in order to live in the most balanced way possible, it is necessary to discover the identity of this animal soul and meet it in dreams and visions, to dance with it in rituals, to wear parts of the animal in question, to keep attuned to its powers, to take its name or explore its nature in order to be fully at one with our soul. When someone falls sick, a shaman sends out part of his own soul to journey into the spirit realms to find the animal nature of the person’s soul and bring it back again. Cajoling, pleading, hunting, stalking, trapping and herding, the shaman uses all the skills of a real hunter to bring back the animal soul.

Magical creatures include all those animals that are the guardians of our animal soul. Among the Tzotzil-speaking Indians of Zinacanan in the highlands of Mexico, we find the belief that human beings have multiple souls, one of which is called the chanul. When the ancestors imbue unborn embryos with souls, they also install a shared soul in the embryo of an animal, so that when a Zinacanteco baby is born, then an ocelot or jaguar or coyote or opossum is also born. During childhood, the child discovers the animal with which it shares its soul. This companionship lasts throughout life, with the animal sharing its nature with the human.

In Central America, the animal guardian spirit is known as the nagual. To discover the destiny that the nagual gives an individual, he must go into the forest and sleep. In his dreams and visions, the nagual will come to him and the contract of his life will be set out. Naguales move invisibly, protecting and guarding those to whom they are attached. But individuals must know the right forms of prayer that necessary to contact and receive help from the naguales.

Carrier Indian myth tells us why we feel affinities with certain animals:

‘We know what the animals do, what are the needs of the beaver, the bear, the salmon and other creatures, because long ago men married them and acquired this knowledge from their animal wives…We have lived here thousands of years and were taught long ago by the animals themselves…our ancestors married animals, learned all their ways, and passed on the knowledge from one generation to another.’

Some stories of this kind reflect even deeper themes in our history. In Greco-Roman mythology, which has underpinned so much of our literature and thought, the giant Titans are said to have attempted to slay Dionysus Zagreus. The god tried to escape by shape-shifting, but when he assumed a form of a bull the Titans killed and ate him. But the goddess Athena rescued his heart, which she fed to Zeus, allowing Dionysus to be reborn. Zeus then destroyed the Titans and from their ashes created mankind, thus ensuring that human nature included both immortal and titantic elements in its make-up.

In our own times, we have been reintroduced to the idea of the guardian animal spirit in the work of Philip Pullman. Pull-man’s His Dark Materials shows how each character in his alternative worlds has a daemon or guardian spirit in the form of an animal. This daemon is an essential part of the soul, directing, prompting, guarding and warning its human partner throughout life. Pullman’s books reveal the horror of what it would be like to be parted from our daemonic counterpart. How can we continue to ignore our own daemons in a world that draws further away from common sense and the urgings of instinct? It is only when we accept and integrate the animal powers of our daemon that we can pass out of a fragmented and warring condition, so that our soul can be whole once more. Like the Hindu gods whom Shiva exhorts to find and enter their animal natures, so too it is our task to find our corresponding affinity in the animal world and embody its wisdom in our lives, for we have forgotten it for too long.




The Language of the Animals


One of the most impossible and exciting features of this book is the way in which magical creatures do not hold their form. Animals have a way of becoming humans, and humans animals. There is a good reason for this, and it is given in an Inuit poem, collected by the explorer, Knud Rasmussen:

‘In the very earliest time,

When both people and animals lived on earth,

A person could become an animal if he wanted to,

And an animal could become a human being…

All spoke the same language.’

The point at which human beings lost the ability to talk with animals is not known, but it remains a continuous thread in world folklore and myth. In the East, it was held that people ‘eat the heart and liver of serpents, hoping thereby to acquire a knowledge of the language of the animals’. Some of the Turkic tribes of Asia had the custom of giving the tongues of different animals to children who were learning to talk in order to accelerate the process.

In the West, the myth tells us that on Midsummer’s Eve, the serpents gathered together to spin a crown of ferns for their king. At their gathering they put their heads together and hissed glass wishing rings called snakestones, which would, if found, help people prosper in all enterprises. Pliny tells a similar story about ‘the druid’s egg’, a stone which is engendered by knots of serpents and which has special powers. Fern seed was the ingredient that helped herdsmen and hunters not only become invisible but also learn what animals were saying. The ability to relearn the speech common to animals and humans was also required by shamans and magicians in order to bridge the worlds between the mundane and time-bound realms and the timeless Otherworld.

There are many characters in world myth that acquire the ability to speak and understand animal speech patterns. In the Welsh story of the Oldest Animals, it is a man called Gwrhyr Gwalstwad Ieithoedd (Long Man, Interpreter of Tongues) who alone can converse with animals. He helps leads King Arthur’s nephew Culhwch to find the lost hero, Mabon, by following a string of animals who lead to his hiding place through time and memory.

The Brothers Grimm tell a Swiss story of an old man whose only son studies with a master who teaches him how understand what dogs bark, birds sing and frogs croak. His father is incensed at what he sees as a waste of education and orders his son to be killed. The servants merely kill a deer, cutting out its eyes and tongue to give their master a token of the ordered death. Meanwhile the lad continues on his way. He goes among wild dogs that are ravaging the land; learning that they are bewitched into guarding a great treasure, he finds the way to discover it and so stop them barking. Later on he hears frogs discussing the death of the pope and how the cardinals are now looking for a divine miracle in order to appoint a successor. As the hero enters the church where the cardinals sit in deliberation, two doves land on his shoulders and the clergy recognize him as pope. Ignorant of how to say his own papal investiture mass, the hero listens to what the doves coo to him and he echoes their words.

In the ‘Narnia’ books of C.S. Lewis, Prince Caspian lives in a time when people have forgotten that animals once could talk, but he learns how to seek them out and with their help restore his lost kingdom. We are in a similar time. This commonality of language is lost to many of us and we have become estranged from our creaturely kindred. We have become tame and forgotten our animal origins. When magical creatures reveal themselves to us, we are not even sure whether they are permissible, orderly, authorized.




Monsters and the Role of the Monstrous


Some of the creatures appearing in this collection are what many would call monsters. But what makes a monster? A monster is seen to be any creature that deviates from the norm. Grotesque variations of the familiar are abhorrent and scary, as we understand when we view any unfortunate person born with a physical abnormality. We feel pity and compassion, but we are also greatly unsettled. But genetic malformations are in a different category to the true monster. Monsters are not one-off creatures; while they may make solitary appearances, they are actually legion.

Leonardo da Vinci wrote about the creation of imaginary animals,

‘You cannot make any such animal without making its limbs bear some resemblance to those of other animals. If you want your dragon to look natural, then take the head of a mastiff or setter, the eyes of a cat, the ears of a porcupine, the nose of a greyhound, the eyebrows of a lion, the crest of an old cock and the neck of a turtle.’

It is this very likeness to the normal that skews our perception and aesthetic values, giving us the sense of the monstrous.

Monsters have the ability to show the unspoken or unexpressed. Indeed, that is what the word ‘monster’ derives from – a ‘showing’, ‘omen’ or ‘miracle’. What we do not care to look at too closely, and what we gloss over in our own behaviour, is expressed by the monster who reflects our shadow. Indeed, cultures worldwide expressly use the monstrous as a threshold guardian of control, drawing on primordial or cultural monsters to patrol the limits as bogeymen. And fear is the bogeyman’s chief weapon of control.

Any study of magical creatures shows how, with certain exceptions, some of them are automatically seen as monstrous by the Christian world, animals that symbolize evil, emanating from the devil, helping to oppose the lawful order of things. Monsters infest places, destroy crops, waste the land, persecute human inhabitants and threaten life itself. As Jacqueline Borsje writes,

‘Monsters originally represent nonmoral evil, the powers of Chaos. As Christian influence on the texts increases they seem to attain an extra dimension…they also begin to personify moral evil.’

But this is not the primal function of monsters. They are not intrinsically or morally evil in themselves. They have another function.

We may see just how the idea of monsters and the monstrous has continued to invoke a deep response if we consider two of the seminal works of 19th-century fiction: Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson. Both are deeply rooted in the idea of the monstrous other, the aspect of nature that is not of us and therefore horrific. Each makes it clear that to create and let loose the monster within is every bit as terrifying as an encounter with a Black Dog or Dragon.

Monsters as agents of the primal chaos of creation underlie many world myths. Thus, we find Tiamat and her family in Assyrian myth, the Titans of Greek myth, the giants and primeval monsters of Celtic, Polynesian and Australian myth. Without these monsters, there would be no earth, no seas, no rivers, no mountains. These titanic beings are world-shapers who live just below the surface of our imagination. Their function is to watch the by-ways and borders of the ordered world, threatening it with chaos, challenging its fixity with a shimmering power, ensuring that the civilized order is kept flexible and permeable to the changing influences of a creative power that has not yet ceased to flow. Monsters can therefore be seen as guardians of creative power whose purpose is to challenge the self-complacency of the seemingly changeless order that we so like to inhabit. Monsters bring out our heroic side, making us draw deep upon our own animal resourcefulness.

Back in pre-Christian myth, the slaying of the monster is a heroic task necessary to keep safe the boundaries of ordinary living. But while too much chaos can swamp us, too much certainty can also bring life to a dead end. In that perpetual shimmer of contact between our world and the world of monsters is an invisible gateway, an edge of excitement that incites us to quest, adventure and balance. Primarily, monsters help us maintain the balance of the universe.




Whose Account Counts?


In the exploration and classification of magical creatures, who decides what creature is real or unreal? Who observes them, and why? What do they say about an animal? Whose account is authoritative? The poem The Six Blind Men and the Elephant by the 19th-century American John Godfrey Saxe is a children’s favourite, based upon a Sufi fable. As the six blind sages feel the unknown object before them with their questing hands, they try hard to determine what kind of beast it really is. As they each feel the side, tusk, trunk, leg, ear and tail of the elephant, the sages think they have found, respectively, a wall, a spear, a snake, a tree, a fan and a rope. The moral concludes:

‘So oft in theologic wars, The disputants, I ween, Rail on in utter ignorance Of what each other mean. And prate about an Elephant Not one of them has seen!’

Very many of the reporters of magical creatures are often as well equipped as the Six Men from Hindoostan above who have no notion of what they are talking about. Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century is perhaps the most notorious non-eye-witness of them all, relying upon the testimony of others to speak of animals that even the original observers did not linger to describe too carefully. What Pliny and others have observed (or not actually witnessed) is similar to the half-truths and observations that we make about all the animals around us in the natural world. One of the reasons we believe animals behave in certain ways is due to our lack of patience or to the rationalist or fabulist’s fall-back which conveniently explains away why a thing is so. The real observer of the natural world soon learns a better truth, although may still not always understand what is being witnessed.

It is only recently, for example, that scientists have learned that whale-song is not just about communicating with other whales but about the practical ultrasonic mapping of coastlines and sea beds by which whales steer their course. Yet, within our own lifetime, we have heard the most fabulist explanations of whale-song which have inspired composers such as Alan Hovhaness (whose And God Created the Whale includes whale-voices with orchestral backing) or films like Star Trek 4 where the very real environmental concerns of the 1980s impinge on the fictional future of the Galactic Empire.

The sources of this book are varied. Where possible we have gone to the first tellers of tales as much as to the more recent accounts. Many of these early reporters lived at a time when only the known world was mapped. The uncharted regions, as in many mariners’ maps of the sea, sported monsters that kept people at bay. Some cultures maintained a policy of exclusion, allowing no foreigners to step into their territory, much as China did until only recently. Medieval explorers and travellers such as Marco Polo (c. 1250-1323) and Sir John Mandeville (1300-72) returned with accounts of things unknown to Europeans, animals and customs that were indeed magical and fabulous. Whereas Marco Polo actually did travel to China and was in the service of Kublai Khan, Mandeville only travelled to the Middle East, although he reported creatures in regions beyond such as Africa and the Orient.

The main classical source which everyone in the ancient world consulted for matters of natural history were the writings of the philosopher Aristotle, who attempted to classify all animals in the 4th century BC. This, in turn, influenced another important work – the Physiologus which was not a book as such but rather a collection of lore compiled in the melting pot of ancient wisdom that was the city of Alexandria from a variety of classical and Biblical sources reinterpreted by Christian clerics. The word physiologus simply meant ‘a naturalist’. Over many transcriptions of manuscripts, copyists misunderstood the phrase ‘the naturalist says…’ as an actual person called Physiologus! This lore became the progenitor of the many medieval bestiaries that circulated across the centuries. These were, in the words of T.H. White, ‘a kind of naturalist’s scrapbook which has grown with the addition of several hands’. These beautifully illustrated bestiaries are a delight to behold, full of fantastic creatures that in many cases only the clerical imagination could devise.

Other important resources include the 3rd-century Roman historian Aelian, who wrote a On the Characteristics of Animals that included some far from natural creatures; the marvellous Herodotus, (c. 484 BC) whose skilful storytelling was only outstripped by his imagination; and the great Diodorus Siculus, (c. 44 BC) who wrote a Universal History in 40 volumes which covered the period from the creation to 60 BC and included many of the most strange and fascinating beasts.

While for the most part we referred to authoritative and well-researched sources, we also listened to that mischievous creature ‘common report’ which continues to tell tales of hearsay and amazing encounters between humans and magical creatures, such as the Yeti and the Loch Ness Monster, both of which have a well-attested lineage. We have always tried to use accounts by people who were indigenous to the countries and regions where such creatures have shown themselves. These myths have both the primacy of local report as well as a depth of metaphor and meaning. They also hold that humans and animals are part of a sacred continuum of life, not living in separate worlds.




Magical Creatures – An Extinct Species?


The extreme rationality of our time has led magical creatures to the very brink of extinction, engulfed in shoals of disbelief. Whenever such terrible times come round, there is usually a corresponding defence and rallying of forces. The magical creatures that once so occupied the imaginations of adult scholars of all ages, had become merely the stuff of children’s stories, suitable for infants and fanciful people of little intelligence. Just when it seemed that all magical creatures were ‘only imagination’, the very imagination that society so spurns came to the rescue. In literature and in film, magical and fabulous creatures began to flourish and spread once more. From the monster movies of Godzilla and King Kong through to Jurassic Park, from the horror films of the Wolf Man through to the zombies of Night of the Living Dead, and the successive school terms of Hogwarts where Harry Potter and friends learn more about griffins, dragons and the practicalities of dealing with pixies, mandrakes and serpents.

Are there yet more magical creatures about whom we as yet know nothing, animals and other beings that are still about to reveal themselves? If we look at the evidences of cryptozoology websites dedicated to sightings of unknown animals, we find many new creatures everyday, such as the Moth Man, the Chupacabras (Goatsucker) and many others whom we don’t yet rightly know. Not all the magical creatures were described by Pliny the Elder or the bestiaries of the Physiologus, nor are all species pinned down and classified by naturalists. Our evolutional history is still being written, as the Epilogue demonstrates; while in the realm of the imagination we have only to look at the species invented by the fertile mind of George Lucas in his Star Wars films to see how new creatures continue to appear.

Despite our sophistication and civilization, our electric light and concrete roads, not all creatures are domestic, friendly, tamed or under our control. When darkness falls, when the sidewalks fall into shadow, on the lonely roadside, in the mountain passes, rustling in the trees, bubbling mysteriously in the waters, other creatures lurk. Some we do not see, some we do not wish to be seen by, some make us hurry onwards.

We believe that life finds many forms and will seek its unfolding evolution in ways that we cannot yet dream. Despite its extent, this book is a work in progress, a report of magical creatures whose numbers increase and decrease on a daily basis. Those that we believe to be dead and gone are not really extinct – they merely slip sideways into the Otherworld to haunt our imaginations, choosing their moment of reappearance. New composites and creations have yet to appear, wondrous, fabulous, magical. As you close this book at the end of the day, laying your head upon your pillow, what magical creatures will dance out of the darkness to enter your dreams? For in our dreams and imaginations, there is no ‘extinct’ or ‘ yet-to-be’, only an eternal present where all creatures meet together.





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A BAO A QU


This strange creature originates on the Malay Peninsula. Described as having many tentacles and a soft smooth skin, it waits for unwary pilgrims at the bottom of the Tower of Victory in Chitor. Pilgrims come to climb this tower, each level representing a further stage on the journey towards enlightenment. As the pilgrim climbs, the creature grows stronger, changing colour and shape, drawing the life force from the unsuspecting victim. Supposedly, the creature will only attain a final form, and be fully alive, when a pilgrim reaches the top of the tower. To date no one has been dedicated enough to do this. The A Bao a Qu is bound to the tower until such time as a truly enlightened seeker arrives and climbs to the top.




AARDVARK


In African folklore, the aardvark or ant-bear is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to soldier ants. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead and nails of the aardvark, which they pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest this gives the owner the power to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is widely used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents’ permission.




AATXE


In Basque mythology of Spain, Aatxe was a spirit in the form of a bull. He haunts the caves and gorges of the Pyrenees Mountains, coming forth at night, especially during stormy weather, to trouble wayfarers. The younger form of Aatxe is called Aatxegorri, who is a red steer.




ABABIL


A race of enormous birds described in the Koran as dropping red clay bricks on the army of elephants sent by the king of Yemen to attack the city of Mecca in the year (571) when the Prophet Mohammed was born.




ABADA


A type of small Unicorn reported to live in the lands of the African Congo. The Abada is seldom seen for it is a shy animal.




ABAIA


In the mythology of Melanesia, the Abaia is a gigantic eel-like monster that lives at the bottom of a lake. It considers all of the fish in the lake its children and protects them furiously against anyone attempting to catch them. Those foolish enough to try are immediately overwhelmed by a tidal wave caused by the Abaia swishing its enormous tail.




ABATH


Accounts of this animal were brought back by 16th-century European travellers to the Malay Peninsula. Described as female, with a single horn growing from its forehead, these were probably the result of a half-glimpsed Javan or Sumatran rhinoceros. Like the Unicorn, a powder made from the horn served both as an aphrodisiac and as an antidote to poison. However, since the Unicorn was invariably represented as male, and since there was only ever one in existence at any time, the Abath seems to have developed independently from the European myths of the one-horned creature. (See alsoAlicorn, Chio-Tuan, Ki-Lin.)




ABATWA


A race of tiny fairies who share the dwelling of the ants in parts of South Africa. They only occasionally reveal themselves – usually to children, wizards or pregnant women. To see one in the seventh month of pregnancy ensures the mother will give birth to a boy.




ABGAL


A kind of early form of the merman, the Abgal is mentioned in Sumerian mythology. It is one of a number of spirits, originally servants of Ea, the god of wisdom. Like the centaurs of Greek mythology who helped civilize humanity, the task of these beings was to teach the arts and sciences to humanity. They did this during the day while fasting, only stopping to eat at night. Early carved reliefs show them men above the waist, fish below.




ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN


The Abominable Snowman is a name given to the Yeti which lives in the Himalayas.




ACALICA


These weather-fairies from Bolivia have special influence over rain, hail and frost. They live underground in caves and are rarely seen. When they do appear they usually take the form of small, wizened men.




ACAMAS


One of the names of the Cyclops in Greek Mythology.




ACEPHALI


In Greek mythology, the Acephali were human beings whose features were situated in their chests. They had no heads at all. According to the accounts of Herodotus and Josephus, the Acephali lived in Libya. They are similar to the Blemyahs.




ACHELOUS


In Greek mythology, Achelous was a river god who took three different shapes when he chose. He could take the form of a bull, a speckled serpent or a bull-headed man, like the Minotaur. He wrestled with Hercules for the hand of Dejanira and, while in the latter form, lost a horn. The blood that fell to the ground from the horn became the Sirens, while the horn itself was discovered by Naiads who took and filled it with flowers and fruit. Classical myth tells us that Achelous’ horn was then presented to Plenty (Amalthea) who made it her cornucopia (the ‘horn of plenty’).




ACHIYALABOPA


Among the Pueblo peoples of North America, stories are told of this fabulous animal – a bird with rainbow-coloured wings and feathers like knives. It is a celestial creature and may at one time have been considered responsible for the whole of creation.




ACHLIS


The Achlis is one of a number of strange European beasts listed by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder (1st century BC). He described it as looking something like an elk, but it had a number of curious features. Its upper lip was so large that it had to graze backwards to avoid the lip falling forward and covering its mouth. A further problem was caused by the fact that its back legs had no joints – it was thus forced to sleep standing up, leaning against a tree. This enabled wily hunters to catch it by partially cutting through the tree to which the Achlis came at night. When it leaned against the tree both fell to the ground, and the Achlis could not regain its feet quickly enough to prevent itself being caught by the hunters.




ACIPENSER


In the 16th and 17th century, explorers sailing the northern seas gave this name to a giant fish whose scales were on backwards, opening towards the front instead of the rear. This caused it to swim much more slowly than other fish; yet it was so vast that no one seems to have attempted to capture one. Stories of this kind almost always seem to arise from sightings of whales or, in this case, possibly giant sturgeon, the fish from which caviar is extracted.




ACTAEON


In Greek myth, Actaeon is one of the eight horses of the sun. Actaeon is described as pure white in colour, with flaring nostrils from which issue flame and smoke. The name Actaeon means ‘effulgence’, clearly referring to the powerful heat and light of the sun. At night, the horses browsed on magical herbs on the Islands of the Blessed; by day, the nymphs of time, the Horae, harnessed them to the chariot of the sun, which was driven by the god Helios. (See alsoHorse, Acthon.)




ACTHON


One of the four winged horses of the sun in Roman myth. The poet Ovid (43 BC–AD 17) lists Acthon together with Eous, Phlegon and Pyrios. These four were harnessed daily to the chariot of the sun and driven across the heavens by the charioteer Phaethon. (See alsoHorse.)




ADAR LLWCH GWIN


According to Celtic tradition, the Adar Llwch Gwin were giant birds, similar in kind to the Griffin, which were given to a warrior named Drudwas ap Tryffin by his fairy wife. The name derives from the Welsh words llwch (‘dust’) and gwin (‘wine’). The birds were said to understand human speech and to obey whatever command was given to them by their master. However, on one occasion, when Drudwas was about to do battle with the hero Arthur, he commanded them to kill the first man to enter the battle. Arthur himself was delayed and the birds immediately turned on Drudwas and tore him to pieces. Later, in medieval Welsh Poetry, the phrase ‘Adar Llwch Gwin’ came to describe hawks, falcons or brave men.




ADARO


This strange being appears in the myths of the Solomon Islands in the western Pacific Ocean. He is clearly related to the merman, but unlike these familiar sea creatures, the Adaro has legs, attached to which are fins; a larger fin, similar to that of a shark, sprouts from his head. He also has fish gills and a sharp horn where his nose ought to be. The Adaro commands a huge army of flying fish, which savagely rend into pieces anyone foolish enough to invade his waters. The Solomon Islanders describe him as flying through the air, carried by his fish army or riding on the back of a rainbow during storms at sea. (See alsoTriton.)




ADITI


In Hindu tradition, Aditi is the primordial entity from which all things come. She is shown in the form of a cow who nourishes every living thing. She gives her milk freely to all on the condition that humans behave to her as if they are her calves, like children to their mother. The injunction ‘Do not injure Aditi the Cow,’ is a warning to protect the whole of nature and the Earth itself.




ADLET


These monstrous creatures feature in the mythology of the Inuit people of Labrador and the Hudson Bay area. They are part of a curious creation myth, according to which a human woman cohabited with a red dog. Five of the children resulting from this union were dogs themselves, and these were sent across the sea to Europe where they founded the European races. Five other children were even more monstrous and turned upon the Inuit themselves, drinking their blood and rending them limb from limb. Among the neighbouring people of Baffin Island and Greenland, the same or similar creatures are know as the Erquigdlit.




AELLO


One of the Harpies of classical Greek and Roman myth.




AETERNAE


According to the legends that surround the life and deeds of Alexander the Great, the Aeternae were encountered on the northern plains of India when his army passed that way in the 4th century BC. They were described as having bony, saw-toothed protuberances sprouting from their heads, with which they attacked and wounded their enemies. They killed several of Alexander’s soldiers who were unlucky enough to encounter them.




AETOLIAN BOAR


Also known as the Calydonian boar, this mighty beast appears in classical Greek mythology as a means of inflicting divine justice. The goddess Artemis sent the boar as a punishment to the people of the Aetolian region of Greece, who had failed to give her sufficient honour and sacrifice. After the boar had ravaged much of the country, the hero Meleager was given the task of hunting down and destroying the creature. Calling upon many of greatest heroes in the classical world, Meleager lead them on a long and savage hunt across the country. In the end, it was the huntress Atalanta who brought down the boar with an arrow, after which Meleager killed it with his spear. He then gave the prize of the carcass to Atalanta, but this caused a quarrel over the division of the spoils and in the ensuing battle Meleager himself was slain. (See alsoBoar, Beigad, Boar of Ben Bulbain, Buata, Cafre, Calydonian Boar, Erymanthean Boar, Pugot, Sacrimnir, Twrch Twrch, Ysgithrwyn.)




AFANC


A water monster found specifically in Welsh folklore tradition. Also known as the Addanc or Abhac, it preyed on unwary travellers. Early references, dating back to the Middle Ages, are vague about its shape and size, but later it came to be described as a giant beaver. The reason for this may be that the name Afanc comes from a local dialect word for beaver. On the river Conway in north Wales there is a whirlpool known as Llyn yr Afanc, and local stories tell of the capture of the monster, which was bound by iron chains and dragged from its home to a lake, Llyn Cwm Ffynnon.

The creature is also associated with Lake Bala, where a version of the Noah’s Flood story is told. A man named Dwyfan suspected that the monster was going to cause a flood and built an ark to house all the animals he could find. The flood did indeed come, caused by the thrashing of the Afanc. Dwyfan and his wife Dwyfach were the sole survivors and they founded the British race. This story probably originated in the flash floods for which the area is famous. Later, it was said that the Arthurian hero Peredur (Percival) slew the Afanc in single combat, but stories were still told of it as late as the 19th century. In one of these, the setting is Llyn Barfog (the Bearded Lake), where, in an echo of the Unicorn story, the Afanc is captured after it is lulled to sleep by the singing of a virgin. It is then chained and dragged away to a deep lake where it still lies. Another such story refers to the mythical hero Hu Gadarn, who captures the beast and drags it from the lake with his team of mighty oxen. The Afanc is probably related to the Scottish kelpie and the Manx glaistyn.




AFRIT/AFREET


A tribe of monstrous demons or djins found in Muslim and Arabic folklore. Described as gigantic in form, sometimes with cloven hooves and horns, it may well have added details to the description of the Devil in Christian mythology. Incredibly fierce and cruel, the Afrits stole unattended children and dragged them to their deaths. They were feared throughout the Muslim world. Usually found in desert lands, the people of Kenya spoke of them inhabiting muddy pools and shallow rivers, from which they leapt out without warning. According to biblical tradition, King Solomon once bound an Afrit with magic, and forced it to help him find the Shamir. Lord Byron, who travelled widely in the Middle East, was so fascinated by the stories of the Aftrit that he included one in his poem ‘The Giaour’.

Go – and with Gouls and Afrits rave; Till these in horror shrink away From Spectre more accursed than they.




AGATHODEMON


A winged serpent from classical Greek and Gnostic traditions. It is especially associated with bringing good luck, and offerings of wine were made to this being to ensure good harvest of the vines. In later Greek tradition, small temples were set up to the Agathodemon, which at this point was now seen as a snake. In some Gnostic sources, Agathodemon is sometimes shown as Aion, the bearer of the zodiac of time, with a lion’s head and man’s body.




AGLOAOPHEME


The name of one of the Sirens in Greek and Roman mythology.




AGUANE


Female fairies living among the Austrian Alps, in northern Italy and the borders of Slovenia. They are shapeshifters but their true form is that of a beautiful young woman with long hair and either goat’s or horse’s feet. They are particularly known as guardians of rivers and mountain streams, and it is advisable to ask their permission before setting foot in any such water. If a man enters the water and stirs up the mud of the stream-bed, the Aguane may come forth and attack him. While they have been known to eat human beings who trespass in their waters, they are also known to be fond of children, whom they carry on their shoulders across rivers.




AGUNUA


In the Solomon Islands of Melanesia, the creators of life were the Figonas. The greatest Figona was Agunua who created a male child, but he was so helpless, Agunua made a woman to make fire, cook and weed the garden. Another Figona was the great cosmic serpent Hatuibwari, who features in the traditions of the San Cristobel Islanders of Melanesia.




AHI


Represented as either a dragon or a vast cosmic serpent in the Vedic myths of ancient India, the Ahi was so huge that in some versions of the myth it is described as drinking all the waters of the Earth, after which it curled itself around the peaks of a great mountain range. The god Indra found it there and slew it, causing the waters to run free again. It is probable that this story reflects the period in winter when the waters are frozen, to be released again with the coming of spring. The Ahi is sometimes connected with Vrtra since both withhold water, steal women and cows, and endanger fertility.




AHUIZOTL


The Ahuizotl appears in the folklore and legends of Mexico. So terrifying was this creature that even to see it was to invite death. It is usually seen as a flesh-eating creature that takes the form of a dog, but with the feet of a monkey and a human hand growing at the end of its prehensile tail. Its name means ‘water opossum’, and it lies in wait for fishermen in the waters and along the banks of rivers. It has a number of tricks by which it catches people, including making small fish and frogs leap about in the water to attract the attention of would-be fishermen. The Ahuizotl then reaches out with the hand at the end of its tail, and drags its victim beneath the water. Within three days, bodies are found floating, and are recognized as victims of the Ahuizotl by the fact that their eyes, teeth and nails are missing – these being delicacies to the monster.




AI APAEC


The supreme deity of the Mochicr people of southern coastal Peru. He takes the form of an ancient man with long pointed fangs and the whiskers of a cat. An anthropomorphized feline god once worshipped in the north of the country, Ai Apaec is one of those gods who are known as the teachers of mankind, bringing the skills of farming, fishing, hunting, music and medicine to the people. He also presides over birth and his court included a lizard and a dog. He is represented on the four-faced pottery vessels made by the people of northern Peru as a human being with the face of the cat on the back of his head; the cat’s face has the eyes of a god.




AI TOJON


A giant two-headed eagle that perches on the top of a mountain and sheds light over the world in the folklore of the Yakut peoples of Siberia.




AIATAR


A creature resembling a giant serpent or snake found in Finnish folklore. Known as the ‘Devil of the Woods’, this creature is said to suckle small snakes. These snakes can cause sickness in the person who sees them. In some areas of Finland, especially along the edge of the Arctic tundra, the Aiatar is seen as a destructive female force that brings bad luck to all who encounter it.




AICHA KANDIDA


A predatory water demon or Afrit of Moroccan folklore which lurks along the banks of the River Sebu, around the Aquadel at Marrakesh, and even in the grounds of the Sultan’s palace in the same city. She appears as a beautiful young woman who lures lonely men to their death. Once her victim is within reach, she transforms into a gigantic monster and drags her victim away to consume him beneath the water. The only way to escape her is to find another human being or an inhabited dwelling, since the Aicha Kandida is apparently able only to attack one person at a time. Occasionally she will relinquish her prey if bribed by a sufficiently generous gift.




AIDA HWEDO


The great Rainbow Serpent of Dahomy mythology.

Aida Hwedo carried the creator Mawu from place to place as she went about creating the Earth. Whenever they stopped for the night, in the morning there were mountains – the piles of excrement left by Aida Hwedo. When the creation was completed, Mawu realized that there were too many large objects on the surface of the Earth and that it was likely to break apart as a result. So she brought Aida Hwedo and commanded him to coil around the inside of the earth’s crust. To prevent the serpent from being overcome by the heat, Mawu placed the sea around him to cool his skin. However, if he gets too hot and shifts in his place, he causes earthquakes. Aida Hwedo lives on a diet of iron bars, but when these are exhausted he will begin to swallow his own tail, at which point the world will be destroyed.

Belief in the rainbow serpent survives in both Surinam and Haitian Voodun belief, and great efforts are made by these people to ensure that the creature is never angered. Thus, before young people marry, if either of them is devoted to Aida Hwedo, they make special offerings to prevent jealousy or resentment in the god.




AIGAMUXA


In the mythology and folklore and of the Khosian people of South Africa, the Aigamuxa are man-eating ogres who inhabit the dunes of the Kalahari desert. Though human in appearance, they have eyes in their instep or in the heels of their feet, so that they are constantly forced to stop and lift a foot in order to see where they are going. Despite the fact that they appear human, they are huge in stature with gigantic hands and feet and enormous sharpened teeth. Whenever they catch human prey, they tear them in pieces and devour them. However, like most ogres, there are very stupid and easily tricked. One story tells how the trickster god Jackal was being pursued by a troop of Aigamuxa. Jackal scattered tobacco dust in his wake, which irritated the eyes of his pursuers and enabled his escape.




AILLEN TRECHENN


A three-headed monster that emerged every Samhain (Hallowe’en) from a mound at Cruachan in County Roscommon to ravage Ireland. It hated all human beings, especially the heroes of Emain Macha and the ancient stronghold of Tara. It was eventually killed by the poet and warrior Amairgen.




AION


The lion-headed god of time in classical Greek and Gnostic traditions. Sometimes shown with four wings or arms (representing the fourfold division of time) or standing on a globe encircled with the signs of the zodiac (representing his reign over the year and the ages). He carries two keys, which unlock the two solsticial gates – a silver key opens the Gate of Cancer and a golden one of the Gate of Capricorn. These gates lead beyond the circle of ordinary time into the infinite realm of the soul.




AIRAVATA/AIRAVANA


In the Hindu mythology of India, Airavata is one of sixteen giant white cosmic elephants who support the Earth on their backs. Airavata stands at the eastern quarter of the world with the god Indra upon his back. The name Airavata comes from the word iravat meaning ‘Child of the Water’. According to Hindu mythology, this wondrous beast was created from the churning of the waters at the beginning of time. He takes the form of a milk-white elephant with wings and was so beautiful that Indra chose him as a personal war elephant. As Airavata flew through the air, he sucked up all the waters from the Earth and sprayed them over the surface to bring the gift of rain to the human race.

Airavata is also seen as the father of all elephants and initially his many children were also winged; they subsequently lost the ability to fly after interrupting a class being taught by a sage after landing in a tree above him. The sage decreed that henceforward they would serve mankind in whatever way they were required. To this day, white elephants, which are extremely rare, are considered to be descendants of Airavata and as such are reserved for the use of royalty, often being given as gifts between kings. The origin of the term ‘White Elephant’ probably originates here, since the beasts in question were valuable but could not be used in any other way.

In the great Hindu mythological epic Mahabharata, a different origin is described for Airavata. Here we are told how the god Brahma took a cosmic egg and opened it, holding one half in each hand while chanting seven mantras over them. From the right-hand shell came eight pure white male elephants, each with four tusks; the chief among these was Airavata. From the left-hand shell emerged eight pure white female elephants. Together these sixteen cosmic creatures stood at the eight cardinal compass points to support the Earth. This idea almost certainly influenced the writer Terry Pratchett, who describes four elephants holding up the Discworld in his series of novels of that name.




AITVARAS


In Lithuanian folklore, the Aitvaras is a creature whose natural form is that of a dragon, but which also takes on other forms including those of a black cockerel or a black cat. It is a type of luck-bringer, of which there are numerous instances in European folklore. Often, a person will bring it home unknowingly, and once there it takes up habitation and begins to work on behalf of its new owner. The Aitvaras’ one objective is to bring well-being and plenty to the house in which it lives, but it usually does this by robbing neighbouring houses. In return, it demands only the sustenance of an omelette every day, but the household suffers the worst side of the bargain since in time it will take the souls of everyone there.

One story tells of a recently married woman who was mystified by the way in which her husband’s corn store never seemed to run dry. Eventually, she took a consecrated candle and went out at night to explore the barn. There she found the Aitvaras, in the shape of a black cockerel, disgorging endless amounts of grain. When it saw her and felt the power of the candle, it flew into the air and vanished, never to be seen again. The woman survived but her husband had already signed away his soul. The earliest reports of this evil creature come from an account of 1547, when a man was investigated for a sudden and unexpected increase in his wealth. It was revealed that he had signed a pact with the devilish Aitvaras, pledging his soul in return for wealth.




AJA EKAPAD


In Hindu Vedic tradition, this one-footed goat was the symbol of swiftness because it was the force of lightning itself and hit the Earth in a single place with the ferocity of its kick.




AKER


The god of the Earth in Egyptian mythology. Aker is represented as a narrow strip of land with a human or lion’s head at either end, or sometimes as two lions back to back and joined in the centre. One lion faces the west where the sun rises, the other faces east where the sun sets. The two lions or lion-headed beings are almost certainly the same as those who guard the entrance and exit to the underworld in this tradition.




AKHEKHU


A strange beast described by medieval travellers to the Middle East, the Akhekhu resembled a serpent, but had four powerful legs and clawed feet. It almost certainly derives from the folklore of Egypt. It is similar to the Griffin.




AKHLUT


A gigantic killer whale mentioned in the folklore of the Inuit, especially those who live along the Bering Sea coastline of Alaska. While its home is the sea, it takes on the form of a giant white wolf in order to prey on humans. Inuit who see large wolf tracks ending suddenly at the edge of an ice floe refer to these as the ‘tracks of the Akhlut’.




AKUPARA


In Hindu mythology, this is the name of a giant cosmic tortoise that supports the entire Earth on its back.




AL


Al is a terrible fire-eyed demon from Armenian mythology. Originally a demon which carried diseases, the Al is now associated with ill-luck in childbirth. It is said to blind unborn children in the womb and cause miscarriages. It also steals seven-month-old children. As well as its fiery eyes, it has snake-like hair, fingernails of brass, iron teeth and it carries a pair of iron scissors with which it cuts the umbilical cord of its chosen victim, inflicting poison on both mother and child. To shield themselves from its evil influence, pregnant women surround themselves with iron weapons that keep it at bay. The Al have a king who is chained in a hidden abyss, from which he can be heard shrieking constantly. In Afghanistan, the creature is represented as a young woman with long teeth and nails. Her feet are reversed.




ALAN


A species of bird-like humanoids with wings, long teeth and hands and feet facing backwards. In the folklore of the Tinguian people of the Philippine Islands, they inhabit the jungles. At night they nest in trees, hanging upside down from the topmost branches like bats. There are also said to have homes beneath the ground that are lined with gold. They are most often represented as helping spirits who give aid to the heroes of the islands; however, at times they can be both mischievous and malicious.




ALBASTOR


A gigantic creature from the folklore of the Cheremis people of eastern Russia. On the ground, it can take the shape of any animal, but it is most often described as a giant, white-skinned man with long flowing hair. It can also fly through the air, at which time it takes on the appearance of a shooting star with a comet-tail of light behind it. Its origin is said to be the souls of baptized and illegitimate children. It punishes people who overindulge in sexual intercourse by providing them with such voracious sexual appetites that they eventually die of exhaustion. It often mates with humans and signs of this may be betrayed by the presence of a sore on the victim’s lips. The human lover of a woman who has lain with an Albastor will also become ill. It can be defeated in two ways: first by breaking the little finger of its left hand; secondly by placing crosses at doors and windows to prevent it entering the house.




ALBERICH


The king of the dwarves in Teutonic and Scandinavian mythology, Alberich lives in a magnificent underground palace, the walls and ceiling of which are covered with gemstones. He guards a great amount of treasure, including a magic ring, the mighty sword Balmung, a belt which confers strength upon its wearer, and a cloak of invisibility. In common with most dwarves in this tradition, he is a famous smith and artificer, responsible for many of the great objects of power possessed by the gods – among them Freya’s necklace. He is an essential character of the ‘Volsunga Saga’ and ‘Nibelungenlied’, which describe the theft of this great treasure and the retribution that followed. Alberich is a major figure in Richard Wagner’s operatic ‘Ring Cycle’, which retells the Teutonic myths with psychological overtones.




ALECTO


One of the Furies from Greek and Roman mythology, this hideous creature is shaped like a human with bat wings and the head of a dog. Like her sisters, she was born from drops of blood that fell on the earth when the great Titan Uranus was castrated by his son, Zeus. Her name means ‘the Unceasing’ and she is said to be responsible for war, pestilence and revenge.




ALFA


In Scandinavian and Teutonic mythology, the Alfa, or elves, are divided into two tribes: the Svartalfar (dark elves) and the Liosalfar (light elves). The Liosalfar are bringers of light and are extremely beautiful, being tall, with skins whiter than the sun. They live in a realm between the Earth and Heavens known as Alfhime. The Svartalfar, on the other hand, live beneath the earth and their skins are blacker than a night without stars. They are famous smiths and responsible for many fabulous weapons and magical armour. Despite their evil reputation, they are associated with fertility and had a strong following among the Norse peoples. Both races are said to have originated from the maggots that ate the flesh of the cosmic giant Ymir. J.R.R. Tolkien drew heavily on their history in the creation of the elvish races which play such an important part in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.




ALICANTO


This creature from the folklore of Chile emerges at night, shedding a golden or silvery light from its great wings. The Alicanto is a strange bird-like monster which likes to eat gold and silver, and if it discovers a rich vein of ore, will continue to eat until it is too heavy to fly. Gold prospectors in the Chilean foothills are always on the lookout for the Alicanto in the hope that it will lead them to golden riches. The wily bird, however, leads them only to their deaths, flashing its wings enticingly until they fall into a bottomless ravine.




ALICORN


An alternative name for the European Unicorn.




ALKLHA/ALICHA


A great cosmic dragon from the mythology of the Buryat people of ancient Siberia. Its wings were black and so large that when spread they covered the entire sky – overcast days were said to indicate that the Alklha had opened its wings. The creature appears to have lived in a region high above the Earth, because from here it made periodic attacks on the sun and moon. To this day, the marks on the surface of the moon are said to be the claw or teeth marks of the Alklha. Anyone among the Buryat people, seeing a section of the sun or moon obscured – such as might happen during an eclipse – believed that the Alklha was active and would throw stones into the sky to discourage it. The gods finally found a solution to this troublesome creature by cutting it in half. One half remained in the heavens, the other on the Earth; that way, whenever the Alklha attempted to consume either sun or the moon, the heavenly sphere would fall straight through the monster and resume its place in the sky.




ALKONOST


A Russian version of the Siren, this being is half woman and half bird. She lives in the land of the dead with her counterpart the Sirin. Her role is to torment the souls of the damned by singing terrible songs to them in her harsh voice and tormenting them with vile punishments.




ALLOCAMELUS


One of the many strange and bizarre creatures found in the bestiaries of European heraldry. The Allocamelus has the head of a donkey and the body and legs of a camel.




ALMA


A creature originating in Siberia and living in the northern forest and wastelands. The Alma has also been seen in Kazakstan and the Caucasus. The name means ‘Wild Man’ in Mongolian. It is a fur-covered humanoid like the Bigfoot or Sasquatch found in the United States. Gigantic and humanoid in shape, it is covered in shaggy brown, black or red fur. Sightings of Almas have been reported since the 17th century, the most recent being in 1948 by the Russian scientist, Alexander G. Pronin, who said it looked very like a man but with much longer arms.

In the mid-19th century, a female Alma with reddish-black hair and with a deeply sloped forehead was captured in Abkhazia in the western Caucasus. It was named Zanya. She reportedly mothered six children by different men of which four survived. These offspring looked like normal humans except for being of much darker complexion and immensely stronger than men. Descendants of these Alma children are said to survive to this day and were investigated by Russian historian, Boris Porshney. He was struck by their Negroid features and powerful jaw muscles. He attempted to unearth the remains of Zanya, but they only succeeded in finding the remains of her original descendants whose skeletal structure was nearer to that of a Neanderthal than a modern human. This find has led to speculation as to whether the Alma is a living survivor of the prehistoric early humans, the Neanderthal.




ALOES


One of a number of strange beasts reported by early explorers of the New World, the Aloes appears in a 16th-century work by the antiquary Ambroise Pare, On Monsters and Marvels, in which it is described as a sea creature which had the head of a goose, a very long neck and four large flippers. It may have been a partial memory of the seal with a bird standing on its back. This is typical of many such descriptions penned by the first European explorers of the New World.




ALOJA


In Catalan tradition in Spain, the Aloja are the fairies who guard the fate of human beings. They oversee the process of birth and are responsible for the provision of plenty. They are similar in nature to the Fates (Moirae).




ALPHYN


This heraldic beast looks like a tiger. It derives from an Arabic chess piece, the equivalent of the European knight of the chessboard. The Arabic name for this piece is ‘al-fil’ and it is usually depicted as an elephant.




ALSVID/ALSWIDER


The name of one of the two great horses (the other was Arvak) that pull the Chariot of the Sun in Norse mythology. Alsvid means ‘all swift’. The gods are said to have fixed a pair of bellows beneath the shoulders of the horse to cool it down.




ALTAMAHA-HA


This water monster inhabits the Altamaha River and the marshes around Darien in Georgia, USA. The creature has not been sighted since the early 1960s, but it is said to be 10–40 ft long with a body 1–2 ft wide. It resembles a giant eel although it is very much bigger than the largest recorded eel.




ALYEONG


In Korean myth, Alyeong was the first queen of Shilla.

When the hero Pak Hyeokkeose was born, elders went in search of a wife for him, looking for a girl who had certain significant features. They found what they were looking for in a Saryang village where a creature had appeared that was a cross between a chicken and a dragon (or Kyery-ong). A child was born from the sides of this creature who was a human girl except that she had a chicken’s beak. When she was bathed, this beak fell off. She was married to the hero when she was 13 years old.




AMAROK


A giant wolf in the mythology and folklore of the Inuit people of the United States and Canada. Its name is curiously similar to that of Ragnarok, the Norse name for the day of doom when the whole world will be swallowed by the giant wolf Fenris. The Amarok is said to be responsible for the deaths of many hunters on the lonely Arctic tundra.




AMBIZE


Another of the strange creatures reported by 16th-century travellers, this beast was said to inhabit the seas around the West African coast, especially the Congo delta. It was described as having the body of an enormous fish, but with the head of a pig or ox. It had human hands instead of fins and a round flat tail like a beaver. Though considered a delicacy by local fishermen, it was extremely difficult to catch due to its great size.




AMEMAIT/AM-MIT/ AMMIT/AMMUT


A giant flesh-eating monster from Egyptian mythology, the Amemait was responsible for consuming the hearts of souls condemned for earthly crimes and misdemeanours. Its name can be translated as ‘Corpse Eater’, ‘Bone Eater’ or simply ‘Devourer’. The Amemait is described as being part hippopotamus, part lion, and part crocodile, and is often depicted as accompanying the god Osiris or as a guardian to the gateway of temples.




AMGWUSNASOMTAKA


Amgwusnasomtaka is the name of the crow-mother of the Hopi Indians of the North American south-west. She has a sharp beak and two warrior sons called Hu who have bull’s horns and tails. They are represented in the purificatory dances of the Hopi with whips made of yucca plants. Each child who is part of these rites is beaten by dancers representing the Hukatchinas (spirits). Amgwusnasomtaka holds the whips of her sons and replaces them from her supply when they wear out. When each child has been beaten in these initiatory rites, she then submits to the same treatment, receiving the lashes upon her back. According to this mystery, Crow-Mother sympathizes with the children in this ritual, which teaches them respect for all the katchinas.




A-MI-KUK


A monster reported by the Inuit people of the Bering Strait and Alaska. Described as a huge, heavy creature with a moist and slimy skin, the A-Mi-Kuk lives in the sea but is also capable of burrowing under the earth to emerge in inland lakes. Instead of legs, it has four unnaturally long human arms and hands, which it uses both to walk upon and to capture its prey. It hunts mostly fishermen and people foolish enough to bathe in the sea, but has also been known to consume large quantities of fish and saltwater birds.




AMMUT


A goddess of the Underworld in Egyptian mythology, her name means ‘Devourer of the Dead’, and she is described as consuming the hearts of those who have led evil lives on Earth. Ammut is often shown in the Hall of the Two Truths, where the hearts of dead people are weighed against a feather to discover whether they have done good or evil in their lives. The head of Ammut is that of a crocodile, her front legs and torso belong to a lion or leopard, and her back legs are those of a hippopotamus.




AMPHIPTERE


Although this is one of the many strange creatures found in European heraldry, the Amphiptere also seems to have been known about more widely. Certainly, anyone bearing this device on their shield was considered to be extremely dangerous and best avoided, especially in battle. In its heraldic form, the Amphiptere is shown with the body of a winged serpent, razor sharp claws and fanged mouth.




AMPHISBAENA


The classical Greek writer Lucan, who described the Amphisbaena as a winged reptile with an extra head on the end of its long prehensile tail, first mentions this creature in his book Pharsalia. The creature’s name means ‘to go both ways’. It became a favourite device of the compilers and embellishers of medieval bestiaries, who often showed this creature in the margins of their books. It is generally shown with its tail curved above its back, grasping its extra head in the jaws of its normal mouth. In this position, it was able to travel by rolling along the ground like a wheel. It must have been a formidable adversary to encounter, since it could run in either direction, possessed the legs of an eagle with claws to grip its victims, and eyes that gave forth beams of light in the darkness. Wounds inflicted by the Amphisbaena generally failed to heal and brought death to the person who had been bitten. Yet, despite its evil nature, it was much sought-after during the Middle Ages for its medical properties. According to Lucan and his fellow-writer Pliny the Elder, its dried skin was an excellent cure for rheumatism. It is described as living in the deserts of Libya and may possibly be based on an actual reptile that is capable of running in both directions, and that raises its tail like a scorpion when threatened. It appears among the great bestiary of creatures in European heraldry.




AMPHISIEN


A variant of the Cockatrice, often found in heraldry. Unlike the ordinary Cockatrice – but like the Amphisbaena – it had an additional head at the end of its tail. Its glance turned anyone who saw it to stone.




AMUN


One of the primal creator gods of Egyptian mythology, Amun is sometimes portrayed as a goose. He is also associated with the ram, which is regarded as a sacred animal and is a reflection of Amun’s role as a fertility god. He is also sometimes seen as a snake in which form he is called Kemetaf (‘He Who Has Completed His Time’). Beginning as a god of Thebes, Amun eventually became a supreme state god in the new kingdom of Egypt. He was said to abide in all things, which may account for his many forms.




ANALOPOS


This antelope-like creature was reportedly found near the Euphrates river in Mesopotamia. It could only be captured by being lured into a thicket where its horns became entangled. A magnificent statue of a beast answering this description was found during the excavations of the ancient Chaldean city of Ur.




ANAMAGQKIU


In Algonquian myths, the Anamagqkiu are the underworld spirits whose chieftains are bears. They dragged Moqwaoi, the wolf-brother of the Great Hare, Manabusch under a frozen lake to his death. Manabusch revenged his brother by killing the bear-chiefs, but the other Anamagqkiu caused a great inundation that flooded the world. Manabusch hid up a pine tree which extended itself to keep him from death.




ANAMTABOGA


A great dragon in the myths and legends of Java and Indonesia. It rules over the kingdom of the dead with its wife, Dewi Nagagini.




ANANSI


The spider god and trickster of West African folklore and mythology. Originally a creator god, Anansi has become most widely known as a crafty and cunning trickster who uses his wits to dupe other animals and humans. Early tales describe him stealing the sun and playing jokes on everyone. Stories are told of him along the Gold Coast, the Ivory Coast, in Sierra Leone, Togo, Youruba, Warri, the Cameroons, the Congo and Angola. He is also known everywhere in the West Indies and other parts of the New World and is probably one of the most popular folklore characters among the African-American population of America. He has many names: among the Hausa he is called Gizo, while the Alkan-speaking peoples call him Kwaku Anansa; in South Carolina in the Sea Island folktales he has become Miss Nancy and Gulla Aunt Nancy; in Haiti he is known as Ti Malice. But it is as Anansi that he is best known, from Trinidad to the Congo. It is unclear whether his original form is human or spider, but he is always represented as taking spider form when in trouble, enabling him to scuttle away and hide from the consequences of his japes. His character is similar to that of Hare and Tortoise in the stories of the Bantu peoples, and to Brer Rabbit in southern USA. Yet there is an ambiguity in the way he is perceived: ‘Woe to he who would put his faith in Anansi’ and ‘The wisdom of the spider is greater than that of all the world put together’ are two sayings heard widely among West African people. The Ashanti and Yoruba people tell how Anansi’s children discovered a pot always full of food and broke it, causing widespread famine.

A story from Ghana tells how, during a bush fire, an antelope allowed the spider to hide in her ear and guide her to safety. When the fire was behind them, the spider ran down to the ground and thanked the antelope for her kindness. Soon after, the antelope gave birth to a baby, which spent its first days hiding in the bushes where its mother was grazing. One unlucky day, hunters arrived and spotted the mother. The little one crouched under the shrubs and the mother leapt up to catch the hunters’ attention, staying just out of range. After an hour, the hunters gave up and went back to search for the young antelope. But they searched in vain and left the forest empty handed. Later, the mother came back but could not find her baby either. Then she heard a familiar voice. It was Anansi, who had surrounded the baby with a dense screen of spider webs as a way of thanking the antelope for her help.




ANANTA/ANANTA SESHA


The thousand-headed serpent of Hindu mythology, Ananta’s name means ‘Endless’ or ‘Infinity’, from which one may guess at its size. Its creation occurred when Balarama, the brother of the sun god, fell asleep by the seashore; out of his mouth crawled the great serpent, consuming his body as it came, until only the head remained. The movement of the vast creature caused the churning of the primal waters, from which the sacred drink of immortality was formed. Like many great mythological serpents, the Ananta will destroy creation at the end of each age. Its mouths spew forth fire and its bite is poisonous, bringing instant death. Yet, at times, it will coil itself in such a way that the sun god Vishnu may sleep in the shade of seven of its mighty heads.




ANASKELADES


A monstrous donkey occurring in the folklore of Crete. Originally, this creature was represented as a normal-sized donkey found wandering the countryside. Anyone foolish enough to attempt to ride Anaskelades found themselves in great trouble, as at once it grew to the size of a mountain and flung them off. In more recent times, it is said to present itself as a bobbin or cotton reel lying in the road. If this is picked up, it then assumes the form of a giant donkey.




ANAYE


The Anaye or Alien gods of the Navaho Indians of south-west North America were of a monstrous and titanic nature. They included the headless Thelgeth, the feather-backed Tsenahale and the Binaye Ahani – twins without legs and arms who killed with their eyes. All the Anaye were killed except for Old Age, Poverty, Cold and Famine who were allowed to continue living so that men would not grow complacent but continue to pray to the gods against the evils that the Anaye brought upon humanity.




ANCIENT SERPENT


An honorific given by the Piute Indians of North America to a huge creature that dwelt in Lake Pyramid, Nevada. Whenever the lake bubbled and formed whirlpools, the Piute believed the ancient serpent was seeking a victim.




ANDROSPHINX


The proper name for the Sphinx in Egyptian mythology. The endless Sphinx was a guardian of the cosmos and an important symbolic aspect of the astrological beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. Only referred to as the Androsphinx when depicted with a human head, it is also known as Hor-em-Asken, a name which may be translated as ‘Horus of the Horizon’, signifying the rising of the astrological planets. The statue of the Androsphinx which lies in the shadow of the Great Pyramid at Giza is the most famous representation of this creature, there represented with the body of a lion and the head of a woman wearing a Pharaonic headdress.




ANDURA


An alternative name for the Hoga, a lake monster from the folklore of the Indians of South America.




ANGONT


A giant and venomous serpent in the traditions of the Huron people of the United States. It lived in lonely and desolate places such as lakes, rivers, ancient forests and in great dark caverns beneath the earth. The Angont was said to stretch forth from within its hiding-place to overwhelm unwary travellers, inflicting disease and death upon all who came within its range. Native American shamans sometimes went in search of it, hoping to make use of its skin in their rituals; however, no luck ever came to anyone who encountered this creature.




Animal Mounts


Gods and goddesses in many mythologies are closely associated with the animal which becomes their mount, taking them across land and sea, and into otherworldly regions. The powers of the animals are frequently imparted to – or in the service of – the gods, thus emphasizing their nature or deeds.

The magical horse Aonbarr that bore Manannan mac Lír, the Irish god of the Otherworld and the sea, could gallop across land or sea. Aonbarr’s name means ‘unique supremacy’ or ‘singular foam’. The white sea horses of every incoming wave belong to Manannan.

In Scandinavian mythology Freya, the goddess of lovers, rides in a chariot pulled by cats, a wonderful image of how love yokes even the most unruly. Thor, the god of thunder, has a chariot pulled by goats called Tanngrisnir and Tannostr. These goats proved useful on Thor’s visit to Utgard where they were killed and cooked before Thor resurrected them.

In Hindu mythology, there are many gods who ride upon animals; these are commonly called ‘the vehicle’ of the god. Brahma, the creator god who is the source of space and time, rides upon the swan or goose of knowledge which is called the Hamsa. The great and terrible mother Durgha rides on a lion to overcome the great buffalo demon, Mahisha, having no more mercy on him than a lion would show. Shiva, the Dionysian but ascetic god who breaks things in pieces, has the bull, Nandi as his mount, because he has triumphed over the lower nature of man, as all good yogis must do. Nandi is the joyful wanderer who is the embodiment of justice and virtue, which are the qualities which make the strong gentle. Nandi is shown as a bull lying down in many Hindu temples, where worshippers touch his genitals, which are a source of life. He is one of the teachers of music and dancing. The Garuda, half man, half vulture, is ridden by Vishnu, the god who preserves all things. Garuda imparts courage and represents the utterances of the sacred teachings or Vedas, for those who read them are transported upon the wings of wisdom and with the force of lightning.




ANIWYE


This huge and fearsome creature, resembling a giant skunk, is found in the folklore of the Ojibwe people of the United States. Armed with the characteristic pungent spray of its normal-sized brethren, the Aniwye hunts human prey and sprays them to death. It is able to understand and communicate with human beings.

The Aniwye approached a certain village and, having seen it coming, all the inhabitants fled, leaving behind one old woman who was too infirm to travel. When the Aniwye arrived in the village, it tore off the roof of her house and demanded to know where the rest of the tribe had gone. When the woman refused to speak, the Aniwye declared that it would cure her of her infirmities for good: it did so by spraying her to death.




ANJANA


One of the sacred white elephants of the Hindu mythology of India. Anjana, also known as Saumanasa, is the guardian of the Western quadrant of the world with the god Varuna standing on his back. (See alsoAiravata.)




ANJING AJAK


The name of a giant werewolf in the folklore of the people of Java. Like its Western counterpart, it is considered a human being whose evil nature transforms it into the shape of a great wolf with a taste for human flesh.




ANT


Ants are considered sacred among numerous cultures, and are especially prized for their industry, thrift, providence and forethought. In Chinese lore, the ant is considered a righteous creature and represents orderliness, patriotism and subordination to authority. However, since white ants can damage the rice crops, the god of war is sometimes invoked against them.

Among the Hindu, the ant is an example of the transience of existence, and is associated with the cult of the dead. In Zoroastrianism, the ant belongs to the dark forces of Ahriman and is the enemy of agriculture. In classical Greek tradition, the formidable Myrmidon warriors were said to be descended from ants or, according to Strabo, they were men transformed into ants after a plague had decimated the island where they lived. Among the Native American people, ants are respected for their patience, planning, building skills and aggression coupled with stamina. The ant is also said by them to have developed its narrow waist through self-denial, having provided food for the people who were forced underground during a cataclysm in the pre-modern

King Solomon once came with many men on a flying carpet to the Valley of the Ants, and they discovered to their horror that these insects were as large as wolves. However, the ants were equally terrified by the sight of the king’s flying carpet and the people on it, for they had never before seen human beings. A queen governed these ants, and when she discovered the exalted status of her visitor, she ordered her subjects to pay their respects to the king. When King Solomon landed and stepped from his carpet, all the ants sang out in unison: ‘Long live the king of all the animals and insects. Praise the Lord!’ Then the King of the humans and the Queen of the ants greeted one another cautiously. Solomon asked if there was anything they feared. ‘I fear only God,’ replied the Queen, ‘In case of danger my soldier ants would gladly sacrifice their lives on my behalf.’ On another occasion, Solomon heard how the ants had dug a pit so that an elephant fell into it, where it was consumed. They did this because the elephants had boasted that it was the duty of the ants to avoid their feet. Solomon admonished the elephants, telling them henceforward to respect the insects.

world. Quetzalcoatl, the Central American god of the elements, turned himself into an ant to steal maize, which the insects had hidden in a mountain, in order to bring it as a gift to humanity. The Pima tribe of South Arizona divides itself into three groups: Red Ants, White Ants and Black Ants, each of which has its own laws and customs, venerating the respective insect. Among the tribes of West Africa, ants are messengers of the serpent god, while for the Ibo of Nigeria the white ant or termite is sometimes represented as a spiritual ally that can be invoked to destroy the crops of personal enemies. Among the people of China, Persia, India and Greece, ants are also the guardians of treasure. Biblical tradition associates the ant with wisdom: ‘Go to the ant thou sluggard; consider her ways and be wise’ (Proverbs 6: 6) and ‘There be four things which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding wise; the ants are people not strong, yet they provide their meat in the summer’ (Proverbs 30: 24–5).




ANTELOPE


In Sumerian and Semitic mythology, the antelope is a shape adopted by the gods Ea and Marduk while Ea-Oannes is considered to be ‘the antelope of Apsu’ – ‘the antelope of creation’. The antelope is also sacred to Astarte, the goddess of the moon. In ancient Egypt, the antelope was sacred to the goddess Isis and at times represented both Osiris and Horus. As a desert animal it was also sacrificed to Set. Throughout Asia Minor, the antelope was associated with the moon and the Great Mother. In Hinduism, it is an emblem of Shiva, and the gods Soma and Chandra have chariots drawn by antelopes. The Greek writer Strabo described it as being somewhere between a stag and a ram but swifter than either. Among the Native Americans, the antelope is a totem animal, particularly for the Plains Indians and the Comanche tribe. The Hopi tribe have a yearly ceremony in which societies representing Antelope and Snake enact a ritual in which antelope boys greet snake maidens. A mystical marriage is then enacted between these representatives of the animals. Antelopes running are said to stimulate thunder and rain-bearing clouds and, for this reason, they are considered symbols of fertility. The fast-running Antelope was one of the animals that helped Coyote steal fire from the Fire People in a story from British Columbia in Canada.

Several tribes in Africa regard the antelope as a significant animal as it is known to be a form taken by gods and only the creature itself knows where these gods are to be found. The bushmen of the Kalahari desert tell how Mantis created the antelope known as the Eland.

In heraldry, the antelope appears as a supporter, but has little resemblance to the actual creature, since it has the body of a stag, the tail of a Unicorn and the head of a heraldic tiger with serrated horns and a tusk protruding from its nose. In the language of heraldry, it is said to represent strength and fierceness.




ANT-LION


In Middle Eastern lore, the Ant-Lion had the face and front body of a lion and the back parts of an ant. This beast was said to have had a carnivorous father and a vegetarian mother, but because the Ant-Lion had the tendencies of both parents, it died because there was no food that suited its condition. As a creature of two natures, it is said to be symbolic of ‘double-minded man, unstable in all his ways’. The Ant-Lion derives from a mistranslation from the Book of Job (4: 4) from the Septuagint which uses the Arabian word myrmex for ‘lion’ in the verse, ‘The old lion perishes for lack of prey.’ This was so like the Greek word for ‘ant’ that the mistranslation resulted in all kinds of speculation about this mysterious Biblical animal.

However, naturalists have identified a species of neuroptera (four-winged insects such as dragonflies and lace wings) by the name of Antlion after their extraordinary behaviour. The antlion larvae digs a pit in loose soil, lining the tunnel with fine sand so that escape is impossible. It then buries itself at the bottom of the tunnel with only its head and open jaws remaining above the surface. Any unwary prey falls into the tunnel straight into its mouth. When above the ground, antlion larvae leave trails that have helped give it the nickname of the ‘doodlebug’.




ANTUKAI


According to the Native American people of Oregon in the United States, this creature resembles an otter, but is of a gigantic size. It was originally a grizzly bear, but having fallen into the clutches of the lake serpent Amhuluk, it was transformed into its present shape.




ANUBIS


The great jackal-headed god of ancient Egyptian mythology. He was the guardian of tombs and patron of embalming, and shared with the god Thoth the task of conducting the dead into the judgment halls of Amenti. There he weighed the hearts of the dead against the father of truth. Anubis was originally seen as a god of the Underworld but was replaced later by Osiris, becoming, with his brother Upuaut, a son or attendant of the newer god. He is generally portrayed in canine form, though the species, whether dog or jackal, has yet to be accurately identified. He is always shown with a jet-black coat, which represents the discoloration of the body after it is soaked in a solution of the carbonate salt natron during the process of mummification. Black also suggests the fertility of the soil and is the colour of the alluvial Nile silt, which produces the rich harvests of the area.

Anubis sometimes appears anthropomorphically in the form of a man with an animal’s head. One Egyptian papyrus derives his name from the verb ‘to putrefy’; whether this is accurate or not, Anubis’ role probably began with an observation of desert dogs scavenging for bodies in the shallow graves dating from the pre-dynastic period. Anubis was seen as guarding the mummies of recently deceased people from evil forces, enabling them to make the journey to the Otherworld in safety, and his image is often found painted on the doors of tombs or the lids of sarcophagi. Priests responsible for the rituals of embalming often wore an Anubis mask and acted as the god’s earthly representative. In the oldest strata of Egyptian mythology, Anubis is a child of Nephthys, or, in later texts, of Isis and Osiris. In the story of the death and resurrection of Osiris, Anubis was responsible for embalming the body until Isis brings it back to life.

Anubis’ many titles not only indicate his importance in Egyptian religious traditions but also his function. He is known as Khenty-imentiu (‘The foremost of the Westerners’), suggesting his rulership over those buried in the cemeteries along the west bank of the Nile. One ancient text shows Anubis in the act of burying a body in a heap of sand facing west. He is also known as Khenty-seh-Netjer (‘One who presides over the gods’ pavilion’). The effigy of Anubis discovered in Tutankhamun’s tomb represents him crouching on a shrine or pavilion decorated with symbols representing the god. Another title is Tepy-dju-ef, meaning ‘One who is upon his mountain’. This suggests Anubis watching over the dead from the heights of the cliffs overlooking the cemeteries where they were buried. He is also known as the ‘Lord of the Sacred Land’, emphasizing again his connection to the landscape. Papyri from the Graeco-Roman period show that Anubis was eventually transformed into a cosmic deity ruling over the sky and Earth. He is even seen as bringing light to the human race, and latterly as manufacturing effective love potions. On the walls of the catacombs of Alexandria, Anubis is dressed in armour as a warrior and acts as a guardian to Osiris. The Greeks identified Anubis, with Hermes, as the being who represented wisdom.




ANZE


Another name for the Zu, the vast cosmic dragon of Mesopotamian, Sumerian and Babylonian myth.




ANZU


The Anzu or Imdugud was the Mesopotamian giant bird with the head of a lion and a saw-like beak. It stole the tablet of destinies from Ea and was eventually killed by Nunurta. Gudea, the ruler of Lagas, dreamt that Ningirsu, an early form of the god Nunurta, commanded him to rebuild a temple E-ninnu (‘House of the Fifty Mes’ – a me is a power). But Ningirsu appeared in the form of the Anzu bird. This seems to be an early legend told before the theft of the tablet of destinies.




AO CHIN


One of four great Dragon Kings described in Chinese mythology. The others are Ao Shun, Ao Kuang, and Ao Ping. Together they control the rain and the sea. They are under the command of the August Person of Jade. They live in great crystal palaces at the bottom of the ocean, and are tended by crayfish, lobsters and crabs as guards and by the fish as courtiers. Whenever there is a drought in China, the Dragon Kings are petitioned for aid. If they fail to respond, statues of them are brought out and left by the roadside to prompt them into action.




AO KUANG


The third of the four great Dragon Kings of Chinese mythology, who control the rain and the waters of the sea. The others are Ao Chin, Ao Shun and Ao Ping. (SeeAo Chin.)




AO PING


The fourth of the four great Dragon Kings of Chinese mythology, who together control the rain and the sea. The others are Ao Chin, Ao Kuang and Ao Shun. (SeeAo Chin.)




AO SHUN


One of the four great Dragon Kings of Chinese mythology, who together control the rain and the waters of the sea. The others are Ao Chin, Ao Kuang, and Ao Ping. (SeeAo Chin.)




AONBARR/ENBARR


In Irish mythology, the magical horse belonging to Manannan mac Lír, the god of the sea and the Otherworld. Aonbarr could gallop across land or sea and its name means ‘unique supremacy’. Its alternative name is Enbarr, meaning ‘froth’ or ‘singular foam’ – from which one may imagine it was connected to the breakers which strike the shores along the coastline of Ireland.




APALALA


A terrifying water monster from Buddhist mythology in the state of Pashawa in India. Apalala both inhabited and controlled the river Swat in the Highlands of Pashawa, which are now in Pakistan. A favourite subject for the Buddhist art of this region is a scene showing the monster in the act of being tamed by Buddha.




APER CALYDONIUS


An alternative name for the Calydonian Boar of classical Greek mythology.




APIS


The bull god of Ancient Egyptian mythology. Apis is sometimes called the Son of Ptah and he acts as an intermediary between mankind and the creator god of Memphis. Oracles are also received through his priests. The sacred bull is black with a small white diamond patch on its forehead; between its horns it carries the emblem of the Sun Disc and the Uraeus, though at other times these may be replaced by the Moon. On its back it has the protective wings of a vulture, and the hairs of its tail are divided into two strands, representing the original two kingdoms of ancient Egypt. According to the Greek writer Herodotus, the scarab beetle, sacred to the creator god, was to be found under the tongue of Apis.

Real bulls were culled from a special herd and treated as sacred. In Memphis, these bulls lived in palatial quarters close to the temple of Ptah, where there were also many statues of the bull god, represented as human in shape with a bull’s head. The pharaohs of Egypt were identified closely with Apis and bull imagery, with its inherent notion of strength and fertility, was a characteristic of the stories of the god-king who was often known by epithets such as ‘Victorious Bull’.

During the funerary rites of the pharaohs, the link with Apis are further emphasized when the king is seen ascending to the sun god protected by a bull. The lifespan of a bull was approximately 14 years, during which period festivals would be held at Memphis honouring it. At its death, all Egypt mourned as for the loss of the king himself. The bull was mummified and its funeral was celebrated with great pomp. Men dragged the sledge on which the embalmed and bejewelled animal had been placed. Its burial place was in the northern quarter of a desert plateau overlooking Memphis. Vast underground catacombs, hollowed out of the rock, contained successive bull burials. Discovered in the 19th century, in some instances huge sarcophagi of granite weighing over 70 tons had been placed to protect the remains of the animals.




APKALLU


An alternative name for the Abgal of Sumerian mythology.




APOATAMKIN


A strange, malicious creature, found in the folklore of the Maliseet-Pasamaquaddy people of the north-east coastal area of the United States. Apoatamkin is generally described as human in shape but covered with long hair and possessing enormous teeth. It acts as a means of frightening children, ensuring that they do not wander away from adult supervision. Bogeys of this kind are known all over the world.




APOPHIS


In Egyptian mythology, Apophis is the name of the great cosmic moon serpent that coils around the heavens. It emerged from the great abyss at the time of the creation, omitting a great roar that still echoes across the universe. Every night it tries to deny light to the world by capturing the sun god as he journeys in his celestial boat across the sky. With the help of the guardian serpent Mehen, Ra always escapes – and in the struggle that follows, Apophis’ blood stains the sky red. Occasionally Ra may be captured briefly, resulting in an eclipse of the sun.

Tomb paintings from the earliest period of Egyptian history depict the god sailing in his sun boat through a gap in the Western mountains, behind which Apophis lurks, its vast mouth open wide. Apophis is represented in a number of different ways, each more terrifying than the last. Sometimes he is a serpent with the head of a man, and sometimes he is a crocodile, his body strangely twisted and contorted. So terrible is Apophis’ nature that he is said to represent darkness, storms and death. He is also an ally of Set, the god of evil. Eventually, Apophis is captured and bound by the god Horus. The god Osiris then chopped him into small pieces, which were allowed to float away on the Nile. (See alsoMehen, Nagas, Rahu and Tiamat.)




Apocalyptic Beasts


The idea of the Apocalypse, the end of the world, has been associated in many cultures with the appearance of great beasts that consume the whole of creation and bring an end to time. The best known in the West are undoubtedly the four Beasts of the Apocalypse described by St John. The implication is that there are many of these, but only three are described in detail. The first beast rises from the sea and has the body of a leopard, the feet of a bear and seven heads like those of the hydra, each with lion’s jaws. Each head has ten horns, bearing ten crowns. The second beast comes from the earth, and is described as having a similar appearance to the first but with a single head. Its horns are shorter and it has the voice of a dragon. The third creature is called the ‘Scarlet Beast’, and shares its appearance with that of the beasts from the sea and the land, except that it is red. The precise meanings of these creatures remains the subject of speculation.

Other apocalyptic creatures described in the Bible include the Tetramorphs, an ox, a man, a lion and an eagle, who together surround the throne of Christ; later they were to be seen as symbols of the four evangelists: Mark (the lion) representing Christ’s dignity, Luke (the winged ox) signifying sacrifice, Matthew (the man) representing the priesthood of Christ, and John (the eagle) symbolizing the Ascension and divinity of Christ. There are also four great horses: the white horse (conquest), the red horse (war), the black horse (famine) and the pale horse (death). Together these represent divine wrath and retribution and are ridden by the Horsemen of the Apocalypse.

The Old Testament mentions such mythical creatures as Leviathan, Behemoth and the Hayoth, all of which have apocalyptic aspects. In Greek mythology, the Titans, and in Hindu myths, the Asuras, are creatures that seem to represent the forces of creation out of control and rising up to overwhelm humanity.

In Islamic tradition, it is the heavenly cockerel, whose feet are upon the first sphere of heaven and whose head is in the seventh heaven just below the throne of Allah, who announces the world’s end. On the final day, the heavenly cockerel will crow for the last time and that will be the signal for the announcing angel to command that the dead rise up.




APOTHARNI


An estranged race of centaur-like beings, referred to in a work published in the 16th century, that are half human, half horse, like the centaurs of classical Greek and Roman mythology. Unlike centaurs the Apotharni are both male and female (centaurs are only male). The females are bald but have hair on their chins in a similar fashion to goats and Unicorns. They are described as inhabiting marshy areas.




APRES


The Apres is an heraldic animal. It takes the form of a bull with a short tail like a bear. On the arms of the Muscovy Company, the Apres appears as the left-handed supporter of their shield.




APSARAS


The Apsaras are beautiful water nymphs in Hindu mythology, who made their appearance at the time of the Churning of the Water of creation and now dance in heaven before the throne of Indra. They are particularly associated with the fig and banana trees, and passers by may hear them playing lutes and cymbals. They are companions to the Gandhavas, spirits of air and music. Tradition describes them as the consorts given as reward to the heroic dead at the time of their arrival in Paradise. Perhaps because of this, no single group of beings would take them as wives, and this gave rise to a belief in their promiscuous behaviour. Their other attributes include bestowing good fortune in games of chance and causing madness or derangement in those who hear their music. They live in the water with plants and trees, or, if on land, with peacocks and arjuna trees. They entice men with their smiles but self-disciplined men are impervious to their dances and callings.




APSASU


The Apsasu are the form that lamas take when they appear as temple guardians of Mesopotamian temples, usually as female human-headed cows and lionesses who stand protectively at gateways.




APTALEON


In Babylonian myth, the Aptaleon was a beast with a goat’s body and two serrated horns with which it felled trees, sawing away at the wood. This work raised a great thirst which was only quenched by the waters of the Euphrates river. If the Aptaleon wandered into the desert and found an erechire bush, its horns would become locked fast in the branches. (SeeAnalopos.)




ARANDA


One of the names of the great cosmic serpent in the traditions of the native Australians. Like its fellow, Yurluggur, the Aranda inhabited the depths of the deepest billabongs and rivers, where the currents run so deep they cannot be perceived on the surface. Humans unwise enough to draw water or fish in these spots are often caught unawares; the Aranda rises and takes its victim below in one gulp, leaving no sign that it has even been there.




ARASSAS


A bizarre creature from French folklore, which occupies caves in the French Alps. It has the body and legs of a lizard and the head of a cat. It preys on unsuspecting travellers.




ARCADIAN HIND


An alternative name for the Cerynian Hind in classical Greek and Roman mythology. Hercules sought it for the third of his twelve Labours.




ARCTOPHONOS


One of two giant hunting dogs belonging to the giant Orion in classical mythology. Its fellow was named Ptoophagos. Between the two of them, they were powerful enough to hunt down bears.




AREOP-ENAP


In the creation myths of the Nauru people of the South Pacific, the Areop-Enap was the Ancient Spider who created the Earth and Heavens by prising apart mollusc shells with the help of two snails and a worm. The two snails became the sun and moon, while the worm, Rigi, was the one who forced the molluscs apart. His efforts were such that his sweat became the salt of the sea as he heaved them open. In other stories, Rigi was a butterfly who flew between earth and sea to separate them. Areop-Enap’s son was Areop-It-Eonin or Young Spider, who created fire by bringing it from the abode of thunder and lightning.




AREYIAI


An alternative name for the Harpies of Greek mythology, said to derive from the cries they made. Areyiai translates as ‘Slicer’ or ‘Tearer’, giving a clear indication of the kind of creature this was. Originally, they were goddesses of the wind, as the meaning of the word Harpy – ‘to transport’ or ‘to snatch’ – suggests. Certainly they are unpleasant creatures, with hag-like faces, pendulous breasts, bear’s ears and bat wings.




ARGOS/ARGUS


In Greek and Roman mythology, Argos was a giant with a thousand eyes. Sometimes called Panopes (‘he who sees everything’), the giant almost never slept, since at all times, when some of his eyes were closed, others would be open. When Zeus, the father of the gods, had an affair with the nymph Io, his jealous wife Hera kidnapped Io and had her imprisoned under the watchful eyes of Argos. Discovering this, Zeus sent Hermes to rescue her. Hermes lulled the giant to sleep with his lyre, and then killed him and cut off his head. Later, when Hera heard this, she collected Argos’ eyes and set them in the tail of the peacock, a bird that was sacred to her.




ARIA


A variety of malevolent spirit in the folklore and beliefs of the Maori people of New Zealand. Seen as vehicles for the Atua, or spirits, the Aria were responsible for inflicting disease and misfortune, and even the sight of one could bring disaster. The fearsome form taken by this creature was that of the green gecko. A story, recorded in 1823, tells of a ship’s officer, who was carrying one of these reptiles in his hand, asking a young Maori woman for its name in her language. The woman drew away from him in terror, repeating over and over that this was one of the Ari, which fed upon the bodies of the dead.




ARIES


A giant winged ram from the mythology of Greece and Rome. It was known as Chrysomallus, ‘The Ram with the Golden Fleece’, and this was its most famous attribute. Its fate is inextricably bound up with that of the Prince Phryxus, son of King Athamus of Thesaly. When the young man was accused by his stepmother of causing a famine in his father’s land, he fled, mounted on the ram’s back. Having reached safety at Colchis, he gave thanks to Zeus, the king of the gods, by sacrificing the ram. Its miraculous fleece was hung in the temple of the god. It later became the object of the quest for the Golden Fleece undertaken by the hero Jason and his famed Argonauts. Zeus, pleased with the sacrifice, later placed the ram in the heavens as the constellation of Aries, which rules over the astrological period 21 March to 21 April.




ARION


The name of a mighty horse in classical Greek and Roman mythology. Homer calls this beast ‘the swift horse, divine in origin’. Arion was said to be the offspring of the sea god Poseidon, who mated with the goddess Demeter, while both were in the form of horses. Arion was said to be partly human, its hooves resembling human feet, while from its back grew eagle wings. It also possessed the gift of speech, and could prophesy events to come. Among its many riders were the semi-divine heroes Hercules, Copreus and Andrastus.




ARMOUCHIQUOIS


Among the strange beings reported by the first Western explorers of North America, the Armouchiquois were some of the most curious. Their heads were very small and their bodies very large, and their arms and legs as lean as skeletons yet straight and strong. When they sat on their heels, their knees were more than half a foot over their heads. They were powerful, strong and determined and much feared by the Native American tribes.




ARUSHA AND ARUSHI


Two of the great horses of the sun in the Hindu mythology of India. The stallion Arusha and the mare Arushi are the lead horses, pulling the chariot of the sun god Suraya across the heavens.




ARVAK


One of the horses of the sun in Norse, Scandinavian and Icelandic legends. Arvak, whose name in Old Icelandic means ‘Early Awake’, was one of two horses that pulled the chariot of the sun god Sol/Sunna across the sky, the other horse of the pair being called Alsvid or ‘All Swift’.




ARZSHENK


A gigantic humanoid with the head of a bull in the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia. Arzshenk is the king of the Devs, demons and servants of the supreme evil being, Ahriman. They are involved in perpetual battle against the Izeds, who represent goodness. The monster was finally killed by the hero Rustram after a battle lasting several days. (See alsoMinotaur.)




ASDEEV


A great white dragon from ancient Persian tradition. The hero Rustram, who has much in common with the classical Greek Hercules, fights and defeats this creature as one of a number of battles undertaken in order to prove himself the hero of his people.




ASHUAPS


Similar to the Loch Ness Monster, this lake-dwelling beast, described as 50–60 ft long, able to lift itself some 3 ft above the water, and either black or deep blue in colour, was first recorded in 1950 in Lac Saint-Jean in Canada. The name Ashuaps derives from a river in the area where the Native American Montagnais people were already familiar with the monster. Subsequent sightings, in 1977 and 1978, have confirmed the presence of something large in the water. In 1978, several members of a Native American family from the local reservation were thrown from their canoe by something that rose up from beneath them. Not long after, two other groups saw what they believed to be the monster, thrashing the waters into foam in the nearby Ashuapmouchouan river. The presence of this curious creature, much like that of the Loch Ness monster in Scotland, has created a considerable amount of media interest, and in recent years a number of investigative teams have frequented the area in the hope of catching sight of the elusive Ashuaps. To date, however, no final verdict has been reached about the existence or nature of this creature.




ASIN


A female cannibal monster from the folklore of the Native American Alsea people of the north-west coast of America. Asin lives in the forest and takes her victims from unsuspecting wanderers who come near to the edge of the woodland. She is especially fond of children, and uses her sweet singing voice to lure them into her clutches. Once there, they are never seen again. For this reason, the Asin is often seen as a nursery-frightener, intended to keep unwary children from wandering into dangerous territory.




ASIPATRA


A gigantic bird in the folklore of the Indian continent, the Asipatra lives in the underworld of Yamapura and tortures the souls of condemned sinners. Its name means ‘Sword-Wing’ – the feathers of its fleshy wings are scythe-like and slice through air. It also has claws like knives. It lives in the branches of a tree made from spears.




ASP TURTLE


An alternative name for the Aspidochelone, frequently referred to in early European travellers’ tales.




ASPIDOCHELONE


A gigantic sea turtle frequently cited in sailors’ yarns from earliest times. In classical Greece it was known as Aspidochelon or Aspidodelone or as the Asp Turtle, though the Physiologus refers to it as the as Fastitocalon. This dates it to at least as early as the 2nd century BC, in Alexandria, where the Physiologus was compiled. Medieval bestaries named it as Aspidoicholon or Apsodo-Toroise, while Middle Eastern sources, probably deriving from Alexandrian writings, knew it as Zaratan. It was said to be so vast that it resembled an island floating in the sea. Mud and soil accumulated on its back and bushes and shrubs grew there, giving it the appearance of a floating island. There are numerous sailors’ tales which described ships anchoring off what they thought was an island, going ashore for the night and lighting a fire. Only at this point did the creature awaken, and sink beneath the water, carrying the unfortunate mariners with it. One of the earliest accounts is in the medieval Voyage of St Brendan, when the saint and his companions encounter the great beast and come very close to being destroyed by it – only escaping because of the holiness of their leader. In this source, it is known as Jasconius. Medieval Christian writers associated it with evil, and described its great open mouth – which it used as a kind of trawl-net as it moved through the ocean – as a gateway to hell. Yet the Aspidochelone seems to have lived exclusively on a diet of fish, which swam into its open jaws, attracted by the surprisingly sweet smell that issued from it. J.R.R. Tolkien has a poem about the Fastitocalon, based on the medieval accounts of the Aspidochlone, in his collection The Adventures of Tom Bombadil.




ASPIS


According to the legend and folklore of medieval Europe, the Aspis was a small dragon with two feet rather than the usual four. While its touch was poisonous and even to come close to it was to invite death, its bite was instantaneously fatal. It had one weakness however – its susceptibility to music, which could make it docile. Eventually the Aspis became aware of this and reacted to the sound of music by sticking the end of its tail in one ear and pressing the other to the ground. However, once in this position, it was virtually helpless, allowing its prey to escape. The name Aspis actually means ‘serpent’, suggesting confusion in the minds of medieval writers between this creature and the more familiar dragon.




ASS


The most frequently described symbolism for the ass, or its lowlier brother the donkey, focuses on its stupidity, stubbornness, inferiority and fertility, as well as its lasciviousness. An ass in a lion’s skin is said to suggest a blustering coward, or a fool pretending to be wise. The earliest depictions of the ass come from Egyptian and Syrian monuments, and these represent not the humble donkey, but the wild ass – the onagar – a much larger animal which is more ancient than the horses described in Semitic traditions. This beast was used like a horse to draw the heavy chariots of the Sumerians and as a baggage animal for their armies. As a desert animal, the ass was associated with the Egyptian god of evil, Set, to whom it was sacrificed, and in later Egyptian symbolism Set himself was sometimes personified as a donkey.

For the classical Greeks, the ass represented sloth and infatuation; it was sacred to Dionysus and Priapus and the god Typhon was sometimes depicted with the head of an ass. It was also sacred to Cronos, and Silenus, the god of wine, is sometimes shown riding an ass. During the Roman holiday of Vestalia, donkeys were garlanded and given sweet honey cakes to eat. In China, the Taoist immortal Chang Kuo-lao, a bringer of fertility to childless mothers, rides on a magical donkey which, when not required, becomes a drawing of a donkey on a sheet of paper, and can be folded up and put away. In Hindu mythology, asses drew the chariot of the underworld god Ravana when he abducted the beautiful maiden Sita, and is thus seen as an inauspicious animal by the Hindus. For Buddhists, the ass is a symbol of simplicity and asceticism and is portrayed as sleeping by the roadside on a bed of leaves.

Plutarch, the Roman writer, says the ass was revered by the Jews, because it found springs in the desert during the flight from Egypt. The biblical wild ass was symbolic of wildness and desolation. People of wealth drank asses’ milk and, like Cleopatra, occasionally bathed in it. Early Christians were accused by their opponents of worshipping the ass, and the Roman writer Tertulian mentioned the existence of caricatures of ‘the ass-hoofed god of the Christians’, which was also believed to have ass’s ears. The 1st-century Gnostics believed that the Lord Sabbaoth, a being of great evil, had an ass’s head.

During the medieval era, on 14 January every year, the Festival of Fools was celebrated, and the Feast of the Ass was an important part of this. Sacred individuals and royalty were caricatured at this event with impunity, and the biblical stories of Baalam’s Ass and the Flight into Egypt were burlesqued. More seriously, in Christian tradition, the ass or donkey symbolized Christ’s entry into Jerusalem. In later Christianity, however, it came to represent the devil, as it brayed in the night and was said to bring bad luck. This notion was shared by the followers of Islam, who held the ass to be an accursed creature that desired to bring misfortune to its owner and brayed to call up evil things.

In the ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, the three-legged ass is often equated with the Unicorn because it has a single horn of gold growing from its forehead. In the Bundahish, a 9th-century commentary on the works of Zoroaster, the three-legged ass is described as pure white with eyes in the usual place and a further two in both the forehead and the crown of its head. It has three mouths, each the size of a house, a further three in its forehead and three more on its body. It is thus able to know whatever evil is being plotted or any attempt that might be made to harm it. The creature is so vast that the hooves of its three legs as it stands in the ocean cover an area large enough for a thousand sheep, while a similar number of horsemen could hide beneath a single spur of its hoof. It is considered to be a symbol of righteousness, a servant of the divine Lord Ahuramazda in the fight against evil. It purifies the putrid oceans with its urine, and the amber that washes up on the shore is believed to be its dung. Its white body is considered a symbol of purity and it is known as a champion of the oppressed.

In Welsh tradition, a king named March had been cursed with ass’s ears, which he kept hidden beneath a hood. But in the end he could not contain the secret any longer, and whispered it into a bed of reeds. Later, a poor musician made a flute out of one of these reeds, and found that when he blew it, instead of music it would only repeat over and over, ‘King March has ass’s ears.’ The musician was able to make use of this information when the king imprisoned him – in return for freedom and a purse of gold, he promised to destroy the flute. But, before this could happen, a gust of wind blew through the flute causing it to play on its own so that the secret was out.

The great sacred novel of the classical world, The Golden Ass by Lucius Apuleus, tells the story of a man turned into an ass for mocking the gods. His subsequent adventures teach him a great deal about the sacred mysteries and, in the end, he receives a vision of the goddess Isis who restores him to human form.




ASS-BITTERN


A strange hybrid creature found in heraldic bestiaries. It had the head of the large water bird, the bittern, and the body of an ass.




ASTERION


The name of the Minotaur in classical Greek mythology.




ASTROPE


One of the horses responsible for pulling the chariot of the sun god in classical Greek mythology. Like its fellows, Astrope was described as pure white, with fire-breathing nostrils. Each morning the nymphs of Time harnessed the great steeds to the chariot of Helios, which they drew across the heavens throughout the day. At night they were stabled in the Blessed Isles, where they fed on magical herbs. (SeeHorses of the Sun.)




ATARGATIS


In Semitic and Syrian myth, Atargatis was the moon goddess who became a mermaid after having given birth to Semiramis. Her shame was so great that Atargatis killed her lover Hadad, and assumed the tail of a fish. The Syrians would not eat fish out of respect for their goddess.




ATHACH


A monster from the folklore of the Scottish Highlands. The Athach may in fact be more than one creature, since the word athach simply means a monster or giant and was applied to several such beings as the Ludeag, a female demon who haunted Loch Nan Dubh, or the Bochan, which can assume a variety of monstrous shapes. Perhaps for this reason, descriptions of it are unclear, though it is said to haunt high places such as cliff sides or steep ravines.




ATRAOIMEN


A monstrous fish-like creature from Caribbean tradition.

Atraoimen became the host for the soul of the hero Kalinago who, tiring of life on the mainland, set sail in search of new lands, eventually arriving at the island of Santa Domingo. There he settled, married and sired many sons. But the sons grew jealous of their father and administered poison to him, at which point his soul passed into the Atraoimen and in this form he pursued his murderers. The sons fled in all directions and were dispersed across a number of islands. In each case, the sons killed the men of the islands, married their women and set up the heads of the slain warriors in caves so that, in time, their own sons could see them and would honour their fathers’ strength. Eventually Kalinogo, in the form of the Atraoimen, caught up with his sons and slew them. In the process of this pursuit, the Carib people spread across the islands, where they remain to this day.




ATTERCROPPE


A curious and malicious fairy creature from Saxon folklore. Its name means ‘Little Poison Head’, and it resembles a small snake with human arms and legs.




ATUA


A name for elemental spirits in the folklore of the Maori people of New Zealand. They inhabit the bodies of other monstrous creatures, such as the Aria or, on occasion, animals such as the gecko. They are extremely venomous. The Atua have many different names and attributes, among which are the Mokotiti, who cause diseases of the lungs; the Korokiorwek, who cause birth defects; the Tarakiki, who inflict swelling to the ankles and toes; the Makawe, whose favourite trick is to drive people into hot pools where they are scalded; and the Titihal, who cause pains in the feet.

They are also known among the Polynesian tribes where they are called Nukir Mai Tore or ‘People of the Otherworld’. Here they have a less fearsome aspect and are akin to Western fairies. They live in the trees and, though shy and reclusive, are known occasionally to marry human beings. It is not permitted to mention their real names and any one who discovers such a name will find their tongue afflicted with paralysis to prevent them from speaking.




ATUNKAI


A strange creature from the folklore of the Native American people of Oregon, Atunkai is said to resemble a gigantic beaver, though it is believed at one time to have been a bear which fell into one of the Wells of Ahuluk. These wells, which contained a number of great water serpents, are said to have the power of transforming anything that falls into them into a monstrous shape.




AUDUMLA


The primeval cow in Norse and Teutonic mythology, who was created out of the melting of the primeval hoarfrost in the vast darkness of Niflheim, the ancient Underworld. Her name means the ‘Horned Cow with Plenty of Milk’. Great streams flowed from her udders and fed the giant Ymir, whose body was later used to form the Earth, while at the same time Audumla licked Buri, the progenitor of the gods, free from the salty ice.




AUFHOCKER


A gigantic demon dog in the folklore of Germany. The name Aufhocker may be translated as ‘Leap Upon’ – and the creature is often seen to do this to its victims. Once it has leapt upon the back of its prey, it grows heavier and heavier until the person is virtually crushed to death. At other times, it will come upon an unwary traveller and walk for a time by his side, then suddenly rise up upon its hind legs until it is tall enough to tear out his throat. These characteristics are similar to that of the Black Dog in British folklore and the Kludde in Belgian tradition.

Though generally portrayed as a dog, the Aufhocker may occasionally appear as a wild black horse, which invites weary travellers to ride on its back. Once mounted, they find that they cannot dismount, while the horse gallops faster and faster, usually ending by throwing them from its back into deep water or swamp. It thus resembles the Kelpie or water horse of Scottish folk tradition. The Aufhocker almost always attacks at night, and it is believed that if its victims can survive until morning they may get free.




AUNYAINA


According to the Pare natives of Brazil, the Aunyaina was an enormous humanoid creature with tusks projecting from its face like those of a wild boar. It hunted humans for its food and chased anyone foolish enough to wander into the forest. Once it had caught them, it ripped them to pieces with its tusks and consumed them entirely, crunching their bones.

One day, some children who were being chased by the Aunyaina climbed into the trees to escape. The children began to swing from tree to tree on the vines which grew there, but the Aunyaina still followed them. Seeing their plight, a parrot flew into the tree and bit through the vine, causing the monster to crash to the ground. From its broken body came the reptiles and lizards which now inhabit the Earth. The children were too afraid to come down from the tree, and eventually became the monkeys which live there to this day.




AURGELMIR


Another name for Ymir, the primordial giant of Norse mythology.




AVAGRAH


In Burmese mythology, Avagrah is one of the names of a great Nyan or Graha, a giant serpent.




AXEHANDLE HOUND


One of a number of bizarre creatures from the folklore and tall tales of American lumberjacks. The Axehandle Hound is one of a group of beings, often called Fearsome Critters, which originated in the minds of men enduring the isolation and wildness of the landscape around Wisconsin and Minnesota during the 19th century. The Axehandle Hound is described as having a long thin body in the shape of an axe handle with small squat legs, and a head resembling the head of an axe. It is said to consume the handles of any axes left unattended!




AYIDA


An alternative name for the great Rainbow Serpent in the folklore of the people of Haiti in the Caribbean. Also known as Aida Hwedo, among the people of Benin in Africa. He is the partner of the Vodun cosmic serpent, Damballah, god of rivers and springs.




AZEMAN


A type of vampire described by the people of Surinam on the north coast of South America. The Azeman is in fact a female, who every night dresses herself in the skin of an animal, and travels around the villages and through the forests attacking and killing anyone she encounters. As with many such creatures, there are ways of defeating or capturing her. In this case, she may be prevented from entering your home by the simple method of placing a broom across the doorstep. Another way of defeating the Azeman is to lay several brooms on the floor of your house – for some reason the Azeman becomes obsessed with counting every bristle in each of the brooms, and is often caught when the sun rises, still counting, and turns to ash. A third way of defeating her is by, during the day, finding the dried animal skin in which she dresses, and sprinkling pepper over it. This makes it impossible for the Azeman to don her cloak of power, and she eventually starves from lack of sustenance.




AZI DAHAKA


The name of a great cosmic serpent or dragon in the Zoroastrian mythology of ancient Persia. Originally, its name was translated as ‘snake’; however, the modern translation in the Farsi language is ‘dragon’. Ultimately, the Azi Dahaka seems to combine something of each of these beings, being portrayed as a winged dragon-snake with three heads, said to represent pain, anguish and death respectively. Each head has six eyes and three pairs of fangs, and the wings of the Azi Dahaka are so huge that when spread they blot out the sun. The great Zoroastrian mystical text Shanamah describes the Azi Dahaka as roughly human in shape save for the two serpents growing out of its neck. Zoroastrian mythology describes the creature as the son of a female demon or as the descendant of Angra Mainu, the original spirit of evil. The myths also say that Azu Dahaka began by eating only cattle, but soon acquired a taste for human flesh. He conspired to overthrow the first human being, Yima, and as a punishment for this, was chained under Mount Demavand by the hero Atta. This is not the end of the story, however, as it is said that at the end of time Azu Dahaka will break free and destroy the greater part of humanity, until itself being defeated by the god Keresaspa. Azu Dahaka is a kind of destroying monster, not unlike the Norse wolf Fenris.




AZ-I-WU-GUM-KI-MUKH-TI


A bizarre and frightening monster from the traditions of the Inuit people of Greenland. It resembled a giant walrus with the head of a dog, dog’s legs, gleaming black scales, and a huge fish’s tail. One blow from this tail could dispatch a human being, and the Az-I-Wu-Gum-Ki-Mukh-Ti was much feared among the Inuit. The 19th-century explorer E.W. Nelson heard much of this creature from the native people and dubbed it the ‘Walrus-Dog’; however, he does not appear to have seen one himself.




AZIZA


Small nature spirits in the folklore of the Dahomey people of West Africa, the Aziza live in the depths of the forest and are very shy, but the Dahomey have encountered them many times and learned from them. They are considered as luck-bringers and as such are frequently invoked by the native people.





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