Книга - Target Tirpitz: X-Craft, Agents and Dambusters — The Epic Quest to Destroy Hitler’s Mightiest Warship

Target Tirpitz: X-Craft, Agents and Dambusters - The Epic Quest to Destroy Hitler’s Mightiest Warship
Patrick Bishop


A gripping account of the epic hunt for Hitler’s most terrifying battleship – the legendary Tirpitz – and the brave men who risked their lives to attack and destroy this most potent symbol of the Nazi’s fearsome war machine.Tirpitz was the pride of Hitler’s navy. To Churchill, she was ‘the Beast’, a menace to Britain’s supply lines and a threat to the convoys sustaining Stalin’s armies. Tirpitz was said to be unsinkable, impregnable –no other target attracted so much attention.In total 36 major Allied operations were launched against her, including desperately risky missions by human torpedoes and midget submarines and near-suicidal bombing raids. Yet Tirpitz stayed afloat. It was not until November 1944 that she was finally destroyed by RAF Lancaster Bombers flown by 617 Squadron – the Dambusters – in a gruelling mission that tested the very limits of human endurance.The man who led the raid – Willie Tait – was one of the most remarkable figures of the war, flying missions almost continuously right from the start. Until now his deeds have been virtually unknown. With exclusive co-operation from Tait’s family, Patrick Bishop reveals the extraordinary achievement of a man who shunned the spotlight but whose name will be renowned for generations to come.The book is a magnificent, accessibly written wartime adventure, perfect for fans of Ben Macintyre’s ‘Agent Zigzag’ or ‘Operation Mincemeat’.







TARGET TIRPITZ

X-CRAFT, AGENTS AND DAMBUSTERS – THE EPIC QUEST TO DESTROY HITLER’S MIGHTIEST WARSHIP

PATRICK BISHOP







To Tony and Mary


Contents

Cover (#u0ce5eae8-7425-53dd-8ad3-fe9584c072e1)

Title Page (#ue9914c27-c8b4-5270-878f-d1f6d69a7fd6)

Dedication



List of Illustrations

List of Maps

Plans of Tirpitz

Diagrams of X-Craft

Ranks of the Kreigsmarine



Prologue

Chapter 1: The Belly of the Beast

Chapter 2: Wilhelmshaven, Saturday, 1 April 1939

Chapter 3: Swordfish

Chapter 4: Trondheim

Chapter 5: ‘A wonderful chance’

Chapter 6: ‘A somewhat desperate venture’

Chapter 7: Smoke and Fog

Chapter 8: Provoking Nemesis

Chapter 9: ‘A heart-shaking decision’

Chapter 10: A Ha’porth of Tar

Chapter 11: The Iron Castle

Chapter 12: Enter the Lion

Chapter 13: Madmen

Chapter 14: The Great Adventure

Chapter 15: ‘A bloody great bang’

Chapter 16: North Cape

Chapter 17: Tungsten

Chapter 18: The Third Man

Chapter 19: ‘My God Mac, they’ve had it today’

Epilogue



Picture Section



Notes

Index

Acknowledgments



Also by Patrick Bishop

Copyright

About the Publisher


Illustrations (#ub69b6a6f-d8c1-56bf-94b0-f6386eea5893)

Integrated

6 A German naval dingy alongside capsized Tirpitz. (TopFoto.co.uk)

12 Erich Räder with grossadmiral’s baton. (akg-images/Imagno)

29 Fairey Swordfish in flight. (akg-images/akg/De Agostini Picture Library)

42 Flight Lieutenant A. F. P. Fane. (Courtesy Estate of Mrs J. M. Harris)

45 Karl Topp and Kurt Voigt. (Courtesy Jurgen Voigt)

76 The end of the Izhora. (David Brown/Tirpitz Collection, reproduced in Menace by Ludovic Kennedy, Sidgwick and Jackson, 1979)

95 HMS Campbeltown wedged in the Normandie dock gates. (Popperfoto/Getty Images)

103 Air Marshall Sir Arthur ‘Bomber’ Harris. (© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS)

123 Gunga Din film poster. (© Michael Nicholson/CORBIS)

148 A PQ.17 steamer falls victim to the U-boats. (TopFoto.co.uk)

164 Leif Larsen. (Courtesy Literary Estate of David Howarth)

178 A seaman with a model of Tirpitz. (ww2incolor.com)

179 Singer Lale Andersen posing as Lili Marlene. (akg-images/ullsteinbild)

202 Kapitän Hans Meyer. (akg-images/Interfoto)

209 Barentsburg viewed from the decks of Tirpitz. (John Asmussen/bismarck- class.dk)

213 Max Shean. (© Peter Hore)

239 HMS Stubborn. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, FL19434)

243 X-8 attack and passage crew before departure on Operation Source. (The Royal Navy Submarine Museum)

253 Donald Cameron VC. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A21798)

255 Henty Henty-Creer (John Robertson/rohspecialforces.com)

278 Admiral Bruce Fraser adding rum to the Christmas pudding on the Duke of York. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A20183)

280 Arseni Golovko. (Reproduced in With the Red Fleet by Arseni Golovko, Putnam & Co Ltd, 1965)

297 HMS Victorious at sea. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A22152)

311 Hellcats on HMS Furious. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A24771)

320 Barnes Wallis with a model of the Tallboy. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A24771)

334 Guy Byam and Stanley Maxted. (Daily Mail archives)

340 Tallboy in flight. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, CH 15380)

356 Bomber Command interpretation report diagram. (Andrew Pinder)

368 Klaus Rohwedder at Wilhelmshaven. (Author’s collection)

Plate sections

Hitler in Wilhelmshaven for the launching of Tirpitz. (Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images)

The battleship Tirpitz just before launch at Wilhelmshaven. (Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images)

Kapitän zur See Karl Topp on the navigation bridge of Tirpitz. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, HU 50747)

Injured observer Dunworth being carried from his Albacore, March 1942 (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A 7902)

Ice-caked deck of British warship in Northern Waters, 1942. (Topham/AP/TopFoto.co.uk)

Admiral Sir Dudley Pound walking to No. 10 with Winston Churchill. (© Associated Newspapers/Daily Mail/Rex Features)

Admiral Sir John Tovey. (Süddeutsche Zeitung Photo/Scherl)

Escorts and merchant ships of convoy PQ.17 at Hvalfjord, May 1942. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A 8953)

Tirpitz steaming through Altafjord, 16 March 1944. (John Asmussen, www.bismarck-class.dk)

RAF reconnaissance picture of Tirpitz in Trondheim. (ww2images.com)

Bjorn Rorholt. (Private Collection)

Tirpitz at anchor off Kaafjord, 4 July 1942. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, HU 50983)

Mark Two Human Torpedo, 1942. (ww2images.com)

X-10 with Sub-Lieutenant Page on the casing. (The Royal Navy Submarine Museum)

Interior of X-craft with Sub Lt. ‘Robbie’ Robinson. (The Royal Navy Submarine Museum)

X-craft commanding officers before departure on Operation Source. (The Royal Navy Submarine Museum)

Tirpitz moored in Kaafjord. (Popperfoto/Getty Images)

View from Tirpitz of the X-Craft attack. (ww2images.com)

X-craft survivor John Lorimer on board Tirpitz after capture. (ww2images.com)

Donald Cameron with Godfrey Place after their release from a German PoW camp. (Popperfoto/Getty Images)

Wildcat on deck. (ww2images.com)

Barracudas landing on HMS Formidable, August 1944. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, A 25443)

Christmas in the seamen’s mess on Tirpitz, 1942. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, HU 50938)

Seamen drinking beer on Tirpitz. (The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum, London, HU 50766)

Vice Admiral Oskar Kummetz on deck with Raeder and Admiral Otto Schniewind during an inspection trip to Norway. (akg-images/ullstein bild)

Aerial still of RAF attacks on Tirpitz, 15 September 1944. (ww2images.com)

Group photo of Flight Officer C. H. Giersch, Flight Lieutenant Bruce A. Buckham, Flight Officer D. A. Nolan, Squadron Leader A. G. Williams, Flight Officer D. A. Daniell and Wing Commander James B. Tait. (AP/Press Association Images)

James Tait with pipe. (Courtesy Peter Tait)

Woodsman’s picture of the final attack through trees, November 1944. (Private collection)

Aerial photo of final attack taken from Flight Lieutenant Knights’ Lancaster. (ww2images.com)

Tait pictured with Cochrane at the Tirpitz celebrations. (Courtesy Peter Tait)

Capsized Tirpitz with bomb crater in foreground. (Popperfoto/Getty Images)

While every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material reproduced herein, the publishers would like to apologize for any omissions and would be pleased to incorporate missing acknowledgements in future editions.


Maps (#ub69b6a6f-d8c1-56bf-94b0-f6386eea5893)

Northern Waters (#ulink_78590bfb-de76-5baf-a086-7b4aa2bd02cd)

The Northern Front (#ulink_aef97230-79d8-5ff1-bb56-40ce4f5cece8)

Trondheim Area (#ulink_0a7063ed-c79a-50f0-b529-c668a62ba0b9)

Loire Estuary and St Nazaire

Convoy PQ.17

Operation Source

The Battle of North Cape

The Final Attack













































Ranks of the Kreigsmarine (#ulink_8abc8f3a-0917-520d-8ca9-f0d0bc075607)





Prologue (#ulink_70935bde-2a0e-53df-beee-efd46507b1fd)

The shortest memorandum in Winston Churchill’s vast wartime output of queries, instructions and exhortations is three words long. On Monday, 14 December 1942 he wrote to the First Sea Lord, Sir Dudley Pound, demanding: ‘Where is TIRPITZ?’ The reply was reassuring. She was stuck safely in a Norwegian fjord near Trondheim undergoing repairs. Far from getting ready for a potentially devastating sortie, the crew was busy decorating the messes in preparation for Christmas.

The terse tone of the memo reveals a tremor of alarm. Churchill’s manner, both real and contrived, radiated unflappability, even in the face of towering danger. Yet throughout her life this one battleship, the last of Hitler’s fleet, could disturb his calm, nagging at his thoughts when it might be imagined he had bigger concerns to worry about. His wish to see it sunk, or at least disabled, bordered on the obsessive. The archives contain a stream of calls for action addressed to admirals and air marshals. A note from Churchill’s office dated 22 January 1942 reports that ‘the Prime Minister rang up the First Sea Lord and instructed him to see tonight the Chief of the Air Staff and concert means for making an attack on the TIRPITZ’. It goes on to record his opinion ‘that the crippling of this ship would alter the entire face of the naval war and that the loss of 100 machines or 500 airmen would be well compensated for’.

In the cruel ledger of war, this, at the time, would have counted as a bargain. The destruction of no other enemy asset would absorb so many resources and so much time and energy. As long as Tirpitz was afloat she cast a shadow over British naval planning, mesmerizing the Home Fleet and forcing its most powerful ships to keep a constant watch against a breakout into the Atlantic where, in the anxious eyes of those watching her, she might cut Britain’s trans-atlantic lifeline.

Fear of her destructive power inspired a heroic feat of arms, the blowing up of the St Nazaire dock in March 1942, thus depriving the battleship of a haven should it ever make it into the Atlantic. It also triggered the shaming decision a few months later to abandon Convoy PQ.17 to its fate when it was thought that Tirpitz was at sea.

The effort to deal with her was unrelenting. Between October 1940 and November 1944 she was the target of twenty-four major air and sea operations. They ranged from conventional attacks by heavy bombers to innovative operations by human torpedoes and midget submarines that even in wartime seemed suicidally risky. Churchill’s proddings produced other even more hazardous and fanciful schemes that, mercifully, were never implemented.

Whether the prize was worth the cost is open to question. Churchill’s determination, though, ensured that it would be paid in full. The actions that followed produced one of the great dramas of the war, touching the limits of human courage and folly. This is it.


Chapter 1 The Belly of the Beast (#ulink_cf2a76f0-c4fc-5281-ae93-8b86fea1307e)

At 8.30 on the morning of 12 November 1944, the gun crews and lookouts on the decks of the battleship Tirpitz stood at their action stations staring intently into the eastern sky. It was a crisp, clear day. The sunlight sparkled on the waters of the Norwegian fjord in which they lay anchored, close to a small, humped island, smudged with the first snow of winter. A few minutes before there had been a clamour of bells and blaring loudspeakers as an air raid warning was announced.

Below deck in the gunnery fire control section a young midshipman called Alfred Zuba was reading a book on German history when the alarm was sounded. He put it aside and waited for information about the approaching aircraft to start crackling in the earphones clamped to his head. The first report placed the raiders less than twenty miles away to the south-east, flying at an estimated 9,000 feet. The details changed fast. The aircraft were closing rapidly. Like everyone on board, he knew what they were – Lancaster bombers, carrying big new bombs that exploded with the destructive power of an earthquake. Nonetheless, he felt confident. Tirpitz had seen off a similar attack a fortnight before and there was a squadron of fighter aircraft nearby to protect her. As yet, though, there was no sign that they were flying to the rescue. When the raiders were nearly thirteen miles away the ship opened fire on the attackers. The first salvo erupted from ‘Anton’ and ‘Bruno’, the forward turrets each housing two 15-inch guns hurling shells weighing almost a ton each with a force that made Tirpitz vibrate like a tuning fork.

Above decks, men were shouting and pointing excitedly at a cluster of small dots, black and ominous against the innocent blue of the sky. The heavy anti-aircraft guns and the light flak opened up and the stink of burnt powder filled the air.

Then, over the industrial thud of artillery and the clatter of cascading shell cases, a different noise was heard. A deep, elemental thunderclap rolled over the decks and echoed through the passageways and stairwells. It was followed by another. It seemed to Zuba that the great craft was ‘staggering’. She was being ‘shaken by giant fists’.

In an instant the atmosphere of quiet efficiency inside the steel walls of his battle station was swept away and everywhere was ‘disorder, confusion, mess, chaos – the bedlam of near and distant noises’. The deck below him began to tilt and he had to cling to a bulkhead to stop himself falling. He called the central flak control station but got only silence. Nearby, Oberleutnant zur See* (#ulink_46f4677a-bb70-583c-a8cd-5a0b57bdf925) Ludwig Mettegang, a twenty-three-year-old communications officer, was scrambling up the sloping floor to reach the emergency telephone that connected with the bridge. This line was still working. Mettegang demanded information and instructions, shouting to be heard over the din of explosions and the shriek of tortured metal. The thirty men around him, crouching in the gathering darkness as the lights flickered and died, watched and listened. They were on the lowest deck of the ship. To reach the outside world meant climbing through four levels up a succession of ladders. Mettegang turned to them with some dismaying news. The orders from the bridge were that they were to stay at their posts. Then came ‘new terrific hits, new gigantic shakings’. Mettegang was shouting ‘get out! Now!’

Zuba ‘tore the phones from my head. I took my gas mask and rushed to the emergency exit. Fifteen, twenty men were standing there. Everybody wants to go up, wants to get out – out to life, to escape from death! But there is only room for one at a time … so we are standing there and waiting for our turn.’

As he shuffled forward he could feel the ‘bottom burning under our feet’. Then it was his turn and he was ‘clambering through, along the pitch-dark narrow hold’ that led to the gun deck. As he reached the next hatchway the ship made another sickening lurch. He slid down the linoleum-covered floor, slippery with oil and water, away from the exit. Water was tumbling into the compartment, ‘black and oily’, reaching up to his chest. He felt ‘death take hold of me with iron hands’. He yelled for a lifebelt but no one could help. He scrabbled on the slick lino as ‘more and more water comes streaming in, holds me tight and does not let me go’. He could feel the shock of more explosions shaking the ship. At last he ‘found a handhold and pulled myself up. A comrade stretched out his hand to me so I could reach a ventilator [pipe].’ The respite was short. The ship slumped again. The pipe that had been upright was now horizontal and he was hanging above the water swirling below. The weight of his sodden clothes was dragging him down and he could ‘literally feel the strength draining out of my fingers’. Zuba had decided that ‘a few minutes then it will be over’ when the ship shifted again. His dangling feet found another pipe and he was standing upright once more. Someone was shouting that everyone should go back through the emergency exit. He could see the opening but to reach it he would have to leap six feet over the inky, freezing water. He braced to jump, knowing that, if he fell short, ‘death was waiting underneath … my knees were trembling’. In this fatal moment an absurd concern floated into his mind. Somewhere along the way he had lost his cap. He pushed the thought aside and jumped. Then he was hauling himself through the hatchway. There was a thud as another man landed behind him, missed his footing and slipped, leaving him hanging there with the water lapping at his feet. Zuba went back to help him. He recognized him, a seaman called Hegendorf. The ordeal was only beginning but Hegendorf had already had enough. ‘He was crying “Let me go, I must die.” “Don’t talk nonsense,” I answered. I pulled him out through the hatchway. He was very heavy. Then we closed the exit to stop the water.’

They climbed through the bowels of the ship, collecting other survivors on the way, until they reached a messroom. A young sub-lieutenant, Willi Völsing, the senior officer in the gunnery fire control section, took charge. He told Zuba and the others to stay put while he took a party off to search for a way out. They sat down to wait. At least they were out of the water and had air to breathe. Someone found a battery lamp which gave a little light. There was silence. They ‘tried to be calm. Nobody wanted to show what they were thinking about.’ The one exception was Hegendorf who was a ‘bundle of nerves’. Zuba tried to calm him down. He took no notice, only stopping when Völsing returned and warned him that he would shoot him if he did not shut up.

Völsing took Zuba aside ‘and said to me in a low voice, “It’s no use. We can’t get out. We’ve been searching everywhere.”’ For the benefit of the others though, the sub-lieutenant put on a brave face, announcing loudly: ‘“We’ll find some way out. I won’t abandon this fight.”’ Now Zuba took over the search. He and his team found their way into the A Deck radio room where there were more survivors whom he led back to join the others. During their search they had found another lamp, and some dry clothes. Zuba stripped off his uniform and put on white underpants, green trousers and a blue mechanic’s jacket, which made him look ‘like a comic actor’. They had also found bread, coffee, cognac, sweets and a large box of cigarettes.

For a while their fear lifted and their spirits rose. ‘Suddenly someone said, “Good Lord, today is my birthday.” We all congratulated him.’ It seemed to Zuba, though, that many were thinking ‘let us hope your birthday is not your death day as well’. The ‘birthday boy was allowed to take the first big swig. Then it was the turn of the others.’

They sat, warmed by the cognac, chewing coffee beans. One of the wireless operators, ‘a regular brick, calmness itself’, gave an optimistic assessment of their situation. He was sure that everything was being done to save them – they would have to be patient until the cutting gear arrived. The ship was 118 feet wide and the water she lay in was shallow. Now that she had turned turtle, ‘there is always going to be a bit sticking out of the water’.

Soon afterwards the wireless operator’s prediction seemed about to come true. Zuba heard ‘a knocking somewhere – bang, bang, bang’. Someone seized a fire extinguisher and began knocking back, but the noises got weaker and faded away. Their spirits slumped again. They sat in the cold metal box, each alone with his thoughts. Zuba worried how his mother would take the news of his death. His brother had been killed a year and three days before on the Eastern Front. What would the effect be on his fiancée Ruth who, when he had told her that he was being posted to Tirpitz, ‘was glad because she thought that being on a battleship was safer’?

Someone blurted out, ‘“If I get out of here I will get married at once.” Now they all start saying what they intend to do if they get out.’ While the others gabbled, though, hope was ebbing from Zuba. He could hear the rush of water. Then one of the radio operators noticed it, too. He began asking ‘again and again, “is the water rising?”’ The others told him to shut up. They sat sunk in silence. Then, over the sinister gurgling, they heard men calling out.

They shouted back together, ‘where are you?’. A chorus of voices came back but the reply was indistinct. The yelling continued. Finally they understood what they were saying. Their unseen comrades were trapped in Switch Room 3. Zuba and his companions shouted back that they were in the forward mess, but there was no answering call. They sank back into silence.

Then, someone thought they heard other voices, and a sharp hissing noise. It sounded, he said, like gas from an oxyacetylene torch. To Zuba, though, it seemed more likely to be the rustle of invading water. Others, though, seized on this rope end of hope. A leading seaman took the fire extinguisher and smashed through the compartment wall nearest to where the noise was coming from, only to be faced with a slab of thick steel. Zuba could hear the hissing more clearly now. It was stopping and starting. He began to think that ‘it could come from cutting apparatus … again there is hissing, crackling and banging’.

They started yelling again, ‘shouting “hurry up, the water is rising”’. Their room was still dry but they could see the compartment below them filling up. Zuba felt they were ‘in a running race with death’. The torch noises were getting closer, though. Someone ‘puts his hand on the steel wall. It is quite warm. “Hurry!” we shout.’

Then, a molten red spot appeared on the wall, followed by a shower of sparks. They shouted with joy ‘like little boys’, as the glowing line crept along the wall. They were ‘staring at it, drinking in every centimetre of its growth’, when ‘suddenly the hissing stopped. We heard voices moving away. There was a deathly silence around us.’






The last berth

The captives shouted in dismay. They screamed and banged on the cold steel walls of their prison, but ‘there is no answer, only the echo of our desperate shouting’. In the darkness below they could make out a ‘mirror of black gleaming water’ rising towards them.

Just as despair settled over him, Zuba heard more banging and sparks sprayed from the wall. A molten spot reappeared and slowly traced a glowing rectangle. There was a clang of falling metal and faces appeared in the hole. Their saviours looked ‘as if they had come from another world’. The hole was only sixteen inches wide. Each man had to be pushed and pulled through it. They emerged into another space with a ladder leading upwards. When Zuba reached the top he saw a square in the metal above him and, through it, the sky. It was evening. The stars ‘were twinkling, a sight I will never forget.’ He climbed up, and out into freezing night, ‘standing free and saved and sucking … air into my lungs’.

He was standing on a vast expanse of red-leaded metal. It took him a moment to realize it was the hull of the ship. As he was led away a soldier told him why the rescue had been broken off. Working in the cramped space between the hull and the lower deck, the welders had started to pass out from lack of oxygen. The twenty survivors were put on a launch and taken off to another ship, where they were fed and bathed and clothed. Zuba was anxious to know the fate of the men he was with when the ship began to topple. Leutnant Mettegang was still missing, believed trapped with twenty-four men. Next day, when Zuba asked again for news, he was told they were dead. According to the story that went around, the rescue team had been able to hear the trapped men but not to reach them. They had been singing ‘Deutschland, Deutschland, Über Alles’ before they suffocated.




* (#ulink_a1f8809b-302e-50b5-a444-074076395f80) See Ranks of the Kriegsmarine, p. xix, for equivalent British rank.


Chapter 2 Wilhelmshaven, Saturday, 1 April 1939 (#ulink_b349041f-d237-5d5c-ab76-68c542af0551)

Adolf Hitler descended from a Mercedes limousine and strode along the dockside beneath the slipway supporting the gigantic hull. His face wore an expression of childish delight as he looked up at the soaring flank of his new battleship, then turned to salute the crowds packed in thousands in orderly squares alongside. They had been brought in from all over Germany’s ever-expanding territories to provide the numbers needed for a theatrical display of might and played their part enthusiastically, cheering, waving swastika pennants, pressing forward for a glimpse of the leader as he strode past.

He skipped up the steps to a high platform raised before the bow. It was a bright, sunny day but a cold wind whipping in from Jade Bay snapped at the flags and bunting and rattled the still-bare branches of the trees. Surrounding him on the platform was a cluster of admirals and generals. Among them, wearing a cloche hat and a fur stole, stood a lone woman. Frau Ilse von Hassell was there to name the ship in honour of her father, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the architect of the Imperial German navy. She was a reluctant participant. Her husband Ulrich, a diplomat, had watched the ascent of the Nazis with dismay. The head of the modern German fleet, Admiral Erich Räder, had first asked Tirpitz’s seventy-eight-year-old widow Marie to perform the ceremony but she claimed to be too old and infirm to attend. He turned next to Ilse and her younger sister Margot but they too declined. Ilse recalled that he then ‘sent a second appeal, urgently demanding my presence. It was practically an order. I need not explain … what such an order meant in those times in Germany.’




The Führer and the admiral’s daughter stood in the blustery wind for a minute or so in uncomfortable silence. Eventually he looked down at the sea of joyful, upturned faces and, ‘in a sort of monotone’, murmured: ‘I have sent trains to all parts of Germany, of Austria, of Czechoslovakia. It is the best propaganda.’ An official called her forward to the microphone. In a clear voice she declared: ‘By order of the Führer and Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht, I christen you with the name “Tirpitz”.’ The bottle swung and smashed. A large, hand-lettered sign reading TIRPITZ in Gothic script was lowered over the side. Then the hull began to move slowly, gathering speed as it went, stern-first down Slipway No. 2 hitting the basin in a maelstrom of churning water. Only the steel vanes welded onto the sides, sticking out like elephant’s ears, prevented a collision with the far jetty. The cheers of the crowd mingled with ‘Deutschland Über Alles’ blaring from loudspeakers as the notables descended the steps and were driven to the town hall square for the next event.

The day was charged with nervous expectation. The world was watching Wilhelmshaven. Europe was sliding towards war and Hitler’s words might give a sign of how fast or slow the catastrophe would be in coming. The omens were not good. The previous day Britain had abandoned its policy of appeasement. The decision had been forced by Hitler’s demand that Poland hand over the free city of Danzig, prised from Germany by the Treaty of Versailles. The Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, who stood by timidly as the Reich swallowed Austria and Czechoslovakia, had at last made a stand, telling the House of Commons that Britain and France would lend Poland ‘all the support in their power’ if Germany attacked.

The volte-face triggered a Wagnerian rage. Hitler had hoped he would not have to go to war against the British. Admiral Canaris, the head of German Military Intelligence who was with him when the news came through, watched as he pounded his fists on a marble table, his face contorted with anger, shouting that he would ‘cook them a stew they’ll choke on’.


At around noon, Hitler began the speech everyone was waiting for. Wilhelmshaven’s main square had been decked out Nuremberg-style with flags and banners. Reporters in the press area noticed something they had not seen before at such events. Hitler was standing behind a curved glass screen, apparently designed to protect him from an assassin’s bullet.

His speech was long and disjointed, now soft, now hard, swinging between cajolery and bluster. Its main theme, though, was Britain, or ‘England’ as Germans chose to call it. The change of heart in London amounted to a declaration of enmity. Instead of staying on the sidelines as Hitler had hoped, Britain, its army and above all its navy would now have to be counted in the forces arrayed against his plans for European domination.

He started by reopening an old wound. He reminded the crowd that during the last war the British had ‘systematically’ encircled Germany, imposing a ‘hunger blockade’ that had resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths. Now, by blocking her efforts to reclaim her historic territories, she was seeking to do so again. Germany, he warned, was ‘not going to put up in the long run with a policy of intimidation or … of encirclement’.

The warning was reinforced by a threat aimed at the British navy – which had enforced the wartime blockade. Only four years before, Britain and Germany had agreed a naval pact that limited the size of the German fleet. It had been based, he said, ‘on the fervent desire we all possess never to go to war with England’. He went on: ‘If this wish no longer exists in England, then the practical condition for this agreement is removed.’ The German people would be ‘quite content to put up with this. We are so sure of ourselves because we are so strong and we are strong because we are united.’




The speech ended in a volley of ‘sieg heils’. Hitler was driven away to board a launch which sped out into the sparkling waters of Jade Bay, carrying him to the battle cruiser Scharnhorst, which had gone into service less than three months before and seemed to embody all the power and vigour of the new order. There he was met by Erich Räder, carrying the baton which marked his promotion that day to the rank of Grossadmiral – the highest pinnacle of the naval hierarchy.

At 2.30 p.m. they sat down to eat flanked by admirals and generals, past and present. The exaltation that flooded through Hitler during great public performances had subsided and he appeared subdued. ‘He arrived, saluted, sat down, spoke to his neighbours and disappeared as he had arrived,’ wrote Ulrich von Hassell* (#ulink_2aa8f39b-5fe4-5120-8eea-191c2c3c94f3) in his diary. ‘He said not a word to any of the old officers, nor did he even look them in the eye.’









Erich Räder with grossadmiral’s baton

After lunch Hitler was ferried to another ship, the Robert Ley, a large liner that took party loyalists on holiday cruises. He stayed on board throughout Sunday, while the ship tacked back and forth in the waters off Wilhelmshaven, escorted by Scharnhorst and a pair of destroyers. To amuse the Führer, Räder at one point ordered the battle cruiser to steer directly at the liner, only swerving away at the last minute.




These carefree activities seemed calculated to demonstrate Hitler’s lack of concern at the new international developments. Whether he understood their full import for the navy he was reviewing was open to question. Naval matters played a subordinate role in Hitler’s military calculations, an attitude he did not bother to disguise. He was a soldier not a sailor. Throughout the time at Wilhelmshaven he had worn a brown greatcoat and tunic, the colour of the Flanders mud he had fought in bravely which stood out against the navy blue and gold braid of the attendant admirals. He came from landlocked Austria and was often seasick on his occasional voyages aboard the state yacht Grille.

Grossadmiral Räder, though, was disturbed by the turn that events had taken. He had been born sixty-three years before in Hamburg, the son of a devoutly Christian teacher, and entered the Naval College at Kiel at eighteen. It was the Dreadnought era when great battleships, bristling with guns and laden with armour plating, were the peak of naval power and prestige. He fought the British at Dogger Bank and Jutland and stayed on in the navy, serving the Weimar Republic loyally. In 1928 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Kriegsmarine.

Räder kept his distance from Hitler until he came to power. His first impression of him was favourable. Hitler seemed to him ‘an outstanding personality with a real claim to leadership’.


He had gained the Führer’s confidence and, once the strategic decisions had been taken, been given a free hand and a generous budget to build up the navy. Hitler had been presented with two choices for his navy. The first proposed a cheap, light, flexible force, centred on submarines and the small but powerfully armed long-range cruisers that the British had nicknamed ‘pocket battleships’. This plan had no pretensions to challenging Britain as a naval power but carried great potential to harm her. The second was to build a big fleet of modern surface ships that would establish Germany as a world maritime force. He had chosen the grandiose option, with Räder’s approval. The result was ‘Plan-Z’, which had been finally agreed by Hitler only two months before. It envisaged a fleet with ten battleships at its core and four aircraft carriers to provide the air power that was becoming a vital adjunct of naval operations. Supporting them would be fifteen pocket battleships, over a hundred cruisers and destroyers and an underwater strength of more than 250 U-boats.

A force of this size would take up to ten years to build. The plan had been designed on the assumption, reinforced by frequent assurances from Hitler, that a war with Britain was still well over the horizon. Only four years before, the two countries had signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, mentioned by Hitler in his speech. Germany agreed to limit its surface shipbuilding programme to 35 per cent of the British fleet. In submarines, it was permitted 45 per cent of the Royal Navy’s tonnage, with a clause allowing it to rise to parity in special circumstances. The deal was negotiated in a friendly atmosphere. Historically, both sides had felt respect for one another. When the commander of the British Fleet at Jutland, Lord Jellicoe, died in November 1935, Räder ordered all German warships to fly their flags at half-mast.

A confrontation with the Royal Navy had seemed a distant prospect when Plan Z was being worked out. Now, with Chamberlain’s guarantee to the Poles, it loomed suddenly and alarmingly into view. Räder’s exalted title scarcely reflected the might of his fleet. As he waved his landlubber leader off at the end of his Wilhelmshaven jaunt, he knew very well that he had limited assets with which to face the coming crisis.

The German fleet that spring had only two big ships in service – the battle cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, both displacing 32,000 tons.* (#ulink_28fe06dc-ef24-5d48-9164-9f290309cb6c) There was a heavy cruiser, the 14,000-ton Admiral Hipper, which would be joined in the coming year by two ships of the same class, the Blücher and the Prinz Eugen. Three pocket battleships were in commission, the Deutschland, Admiral Graf Spee and Admiral Scheer. Despite displacing only 12,000 tons, they packed heavy firepower in their six 11-inch guns. Of the four planned aircraft carriers only one, the Graf Zeppelin, had been laid down, but years of work remained. As for submarines, about fifty would be ready for operations by the end of the summer.

In numerical terms, this was a tiny force when compared with the Royal Navy. It could muster twelve battleships with five more on the way, four battle cruisers, six aircraft carriers with another six building, and twenty-four heavy cruisers. It was only below the waves that numbers were equal.

But strength was not measured in numbers alone. The qualitative difference between the two fleets went a long way towards correcting the quantitative imbalance. The core of the German fleet was modern, whereas many of the British ships dated back to the previous war and only some of them had been updated. The new ships in the pipeline were inferior to their German counterparts. Britain, it would often be lamented in the years to come, had played the game when it came to honouring the various limitations agreements it had entered into in the inter-war years. The Germans had, systematically and ruthlessly, cheated.

All their large ships were bigger than they were supposed to be. The Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were actually 6,000 tons heavier than officially claimed. The extra weight came from the thick armour plating which reduced the danger from the heavier guns of the British battle cruisers. They were also faster than claimed and could muster thirty-one knots, which gave them the edge over their counterparts if forced to run.

It was in the top class – the battleships – that German superiority was most marked. Since Tirpitz and her sister ship Bismarck were laid down in 1936, the Germany Embassy in London, on Räder’s instructions, had lied to the Foreign Office about their specifications. Instead of being 35,000 tons, the upper limit agreed in the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, they would both weigh in at 42,500 tons. The British stuck to the rules. As a result the battleships under construction of the King George V (KGV) class were nearly 12 per cent lighter.

It was not merely a question of size. When finished, Tirpitz and Bismarck would best the Royal Navy’s new ships in every department. They each mounted eight 15-inch guns against the 14-inch main armament of the King George V. They were faster and could travel far greater distances without refuelling. They were also immensely well protected, with thick layers of steel armour encasing decks and hull, turrets, engine rooms and magazines. It was often said by their enemies that the Germans had declared their battleships ‘unsinkable’. The claim does not seem to have been made officially. Their constructors revealed after the war that the Kriegsmarine often intervened during the building of Tirpitz and Bismarck to ‘raise their levels of unsinkability’.


The result was that, in the case of Tirpitz, 40 per cent of her overall weight was made up of armour plating. The belief grew that Tirpitz and Bismarck could survive any torpedo, shell or bomb that British ships or aircraft could hurl at them, and it was not unfounded. The British navy had been starved of funds in the post-war years, and little effort had been put into developing new weaponry. Torpedoes and shells carried feeble charges and lacked penetrative power. The greatest failure to keep pace with technological developments lay in the area of naval aviation. The Admiralty was only now regaining control of the Fleet Air Arm from the RAF, whose equipment programmes had given priority to fighters and bombers. The navy was entering the war equipped with biplanes that looked like survivors from the previous conflict.

Even with his long-term plan in tatters and Tirpitz and Bismarck still far from completion, Räder could still cause Britain great harm. The Royal Navy suffered from a crucial strategic disadvantage. Britain depended for survival on its seaborne trade. The navy had the duty of protecting a web of routes that stretched to all corners of the globe. Germany, as a continental power, was far less reliant on overseas supplies. If it came to war, its navy’s responsibility was clearer and narrower. Its function was not to protect but to attack, ravaging the sea lanes that linked Britain to the rest of the world.

As the countdown to hostilities accelerated, it was powerful German warships rather than the U-boat fleet that the Admiralty most feared. ‘Nothing would paralyse our supply system and seaborne trade so successfully,’ wrote the First Sea Lord Sir Dudley Pound, just before the outbreak, ‘as attack by surface raiders.’ It was to their detection, pursuit and destruction that the Home Fleet turned as the long overture finished and the curtain went up on the war.

* (#ulink_6c7b4b21-51e1-588a-b0fb-311d4b016d5c) Von Hassell was a conservative patriot who had been wounded in the First World War and still carried a French bullet in his heart. He was executed for his part in the 20 July 1944 plot to assassinate Hitler.

* (#ulink_276f2fda-d77b-50c5-8904-4d8400b263a6) All displacements are given as standard, minus the weight of fuel, water and stores that would be carried on voyage.





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